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<div>==Background==<br />
Although charcoal was used in a variety of metallurgical industries, <ref>Whitney 1994, 218</ref> in nineteenth century Pennsylvania, charcoal was produced primarily to fuel [[iron production]]. Charcoal is the result of the destructive distillation of wood to yield a fuel that is primarily carbon<ref>Straka 2014, 106</ref>. Charcoal is made by partially burning (carbonizing) wood to remove water vapor and volatile gases, leaving a carbon residue.<ref>Straka 2010, 59</ref> When charcoal is produced it reduces the volume of wood by about half and its weight by a quarter making it easy to transport <ref>Straka, 59</ref> Charcoal was produced by [[Colliers| colliers]]. Charcoal retains the texture of wood, is black in color, and is fragile under pressure<ref>Svedelius 1875, 20</ref>. Unlike wood, charcoal was not attacked by insects or fungi and could be stored indefinitely. It was also easier to burn, pro- duced less smoke, and was a more concentrated heat source. <br />
Charcoal was used in iron production rather than pure wood because charcoal burns much hotter and more consistently<ref>Straka 2014, 106; Whitney 1994, 218</ref>. In the nineteenth century, when iron production was at its peak, the demand for charcoal as fuel for furnaces directly impacted forests. As a result, the charcoal industry was one of the first to think about sustainability and forestry. Unlike wood, charcoal was not attacked by insects or fungi, and could be stored indefinitely, and was a more concentrated heat source (producing about one and a half times more heat than an equivalent weight of dry wood. (pg. 59, History on the Road, Thomas Stratka and Wayne Ramer) Charcoal provided the fuel for early eastern iron furnaces and the western gold and silver smelters in the United States. (p. 58 History on the Road, Thomas Straka and Wayne Ramer) A charcoal furnace might require half the capital of a coke furnace, but the cost of transporting fuel, as measured by weight and distance, played a large role in determining the profitability of an iron furnace.<ref>Straka 2010, 59</ref><br />
<br />
==Types of Wood==<br />
While most types of wood can become charcoal, hard woods generally produced the best quality charcoal. Trees like oak, hickory, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chestnut chestnut], and elm were greatly preferred to softer woods, such as gum and poplar<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, 59</ref>. Additionally, although resin rich wood, such as pine, are generally less desirable<ref>Overman 1854, 81</ref>, they may be extensively used when it is widely available <ref>see Svedelius</ref>. However, heavier hardwood required a longer burning period<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, 59</ref>, so sometimes a mixture of hardwood and softwood proved to be a combination that yielded the greatest quantity of charcoal<ref>Straka 2014, 106</ref> without compromising the integrity of the material. The condition of wood was also important to the quality of the charcoal output, as knots in the wood, decay, and moisture all negatively impacted carbonization<ref>Straka 2014, 106</ref>. The charcoal produced was not proportional to the original amount of wood<ref>Svedelius 1875, 162</ref>. The burning process reduced the weight of the wood by roughly a quarter and the volume of the wood by half<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, 59</ref>.<br />
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The wood was cut by woodcutters primarily during the winter months<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, 59</ref>, as the trees would have less moisture inside<ref>Svedelius 1875, 6; Overman 1854, 80</ref>. Two types of wood were cut: lap-wood and billets<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, 59</ref>. Both were cut in a particular fashion that allowed them to slant inward when piled together<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, 59</ref>. See [[Harvesting Wood]].<br />
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Furnace operators preferred timber about 20 to 30 years old. (pg. 60, History on the Road, Thomas Stratka and Wayne Ramer) Most billets came from tree trunks, and most lap-wood from branches. (p. 61, History on the Road, Thomas Stratka and Wayne Ramer) Oak and Hickory were strongly preferred for making “hard” coal; gum and poplar, which made “soft” coal, were of less value. (p.59 History on the Road, Thomas Straka and Wayne Ramer)<br />
<br />
==Charcoal Production Process==<br />
===Making the Hearth===<br />
Because of high winter and spring winds and other unfavorable weather conditions, the pits were fired only during the months from May until late October.(pg. 10, American Charcoal Making in the Era of the Cold Blast Furnace) <br />
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Charcoal hearths required a large, flat, solid, and dry area<ref>Straka 2014, 106</ref> that was typically thirty to forty feet in diameter<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, 61</ref>. The ground would be tilled to remove any rocks or organic material from the area<ref>Overman 1854, 104</ref>. The hearths were often constructed on hillsides to facilitate dirt movement and were usually round<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, 61</ref>.The hearths were situated about the distance of a city block from each other.( pg. 8, American Charcoal Making in the Era of the Cold Blast Furnace) When identifying the remains of charcoal hearths, the aforementioned information can be utilized. The soil at hearth site remains will typically also be darker in color<ref>McVarish 2008, 263</ref> and flecked with charcoal remains. Low places were avoided as they were typically prone to retaining water in the soil, which would have been detrimental to the charcoal production process<ref>Svedelius 1875, 30</ref>. It was also important that the hearth area was accessible to wagons, so that the charcoal could be carted away<ref>Svedelius 1875, 30</ref>. A triangular chimney was constructed from stacked wood in the center of the hearth. In the chimney, a large stick called the Fagan pole was inserted<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, 61</ref>. The Fagan pole was used to mark the center of the pit (the term "pit" is not an accurate descriptor of the appearance of the hearth, as the structure was entirely above ground) and would be also be removed to provide draught just prior to the process of burning the wood<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, 61</ref>. It was important that the hearth were not dug into the ground; rather, they were to sit slightly higher than the surface, as to allow water to drain away<ref>Svedelius 1875, 32</ref>.<br />
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===Piling the Wood===<br />
After the chimney and the pole were constructed, the collier leaned thick pieces of hardwood (called billets) inward against the chimney and filled the gaps with lap-wood<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, 61</ref>. It was important for the wood to be packed as closely together as possible to ensure uniform burning<ref>Svedelius 1875, 41</ref>. After the first layer (the "foot") was created, the second layer (the "waist") was built up four feet in height<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, 61</ref>. Then, a third layer (the "head") was added to the chimney, completing the structure<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, 61</ref>. A pit may have held anywhere from twenty-five to fifty cords of wood at a time<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, 61</ref>. • After the chimney was about 5 feet high, the collier placed billets at the base, allowing each piece to protrude slightly at the base. When the first ring of billets had been placed, another ring was begun, the base protruding a little more each time, so that when the ring of charcoal dust finally was reached there would be enough slope to the sides of the pit to enable the final covering of leaves and dust to rest securely without sliding off. (Lap wood was fitted in whenever possible to take up air spaces…(pg. 14 American Charcoal Making in the Era of the Cold Blast Furnace)<br />
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===Covering the Wood===<br />
The last step in the process of constructing the wood pile is known as "Lapping-off"; this was when colliers covered their wood piles with a layer of leftover lap-wood<ref>Kemper 1941, 16</ref>. The lap-wood was then covered by leaves and straw, which were collected on site by the collier or their helpers. This layering of brush typically amounted to a covering of a few inches<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, 61</ref><ref>Kemper 1941, 16</ref>. Then, a layer of charcoal dust and dirt was added<ref>McVarish 2008, 262</ref>. This final covering acted as a barrier between the wood and the dirt, helping to ensure even charring of the wood by restricting air flow<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, 61</ref>. Througout the entire operation great care was taken to set and fit the pieces substantially together to prevent the whole from reeling or twisting. A pit hastily slapped together was certain to reel. (pg. 16, American Charcoal Making in the Era of the Cold Blast Furnace)<br />
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===The Burning Process===<br />
Ignition of the charcoal pits typically occurred in the later parts of the evening, this was done so that the colliers could sleep one more time before they had to constantly watch the pit. Normally the pit would not require the attention of the collier until the following afternoon<ref>Kemper 1941, 18</ref>. Charcoal hearths were lit at the top and burned downwards<ref>Straka, 2014, 107</ref>. To ignite the wood, kindling was placed within the the chimney and the fagan pole was removed<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, 61</ref>. Then, hot coals were dropped into the chimney and the opening was covered with a flat wood pieces called the "bridging." The bridging was then covered with leaves and straw<ref>Wagner, 2008</ref> before the burning began. Small holes or smoke-vents were created at the bottom of the pile to allow airflow for the draught<ref>Svedelius 1875, 52</ref> and would be closely managed by the colliers.<br />
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The process typically took between ten to fourteen days; however, if conditions were unfavorable, the burning period could take three weeks<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, 61</ref>. The type of wood, its quality, the way the wood was piled, and the number of cords also factored into the length of the burning process<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, 61</ref>. The greater in size and dryness a billet was, the longer the coaling process would take<ref>Svedelius 1875, 81</ref>. Throughout the process, the pit was carefully observed and diligently tended to by colliers to ensure that the wood was burning evenly<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, 61</ref>, especially at the foot of the hearth<ref>Svedelius 1875, 58</ref>. Colliers were trained to be a master in recognizing different surfaces based on their feel of the fagan.<ref>Kemper 1940, 21-22</ref>. A master collier and one or two helpers “coaled” together, working as many as eight or nine pits at a time. (pg. 8, American Charcoal Making in the Era of the Cold Blast Furnace) During the process the billets shrunk, and the collier needed to pack in more wood and dust to fill the gaps<ref>Svedelius 1875, 69</ref>. As the charring process continues, pockets develop in the pit; the collier walks the pile, called “jumping the pit” to locate them. Any soft spots are filled in with more wood. (pg. 60, History on the Road, Thomas Stratka and Wayne Ramer) At five hundred degrees Fahrenheit the wood began to break down; the maximum temperature reached during the process was about seven hundred fifty degrees Fahrenheit<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, 59</ref>. Colliers needed to watch the color of the smoke and attend to the smoke-vents accordingly <ref>Svedelius 1875, 80</ref>. White smoke was one of indicators of a proper burning<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, 59</ref>, whereas brown tinted smoke, or "dangerous smoke," indicated that the smoke-vents had been created too far down in the pile and a fire broke out before the main burning reached the area, which resulted in a loss of charcoal<ref>Svedelius 1875, 81</ref>. Throughout the burning process, the smoke would cycle through various colors and densities, which would indicate to the collier whether or not to adjust the smoke-vents at various times. At the beginning, the smoke would be thick and of a gray-white color and strong smell; but as the coaling process continued, the smoke would thin out and turn whiter in color, until the smoke became light blue, a signal that it was time to close the smoke-vets and open new ones farther down<ref>Svedelius 1875, 80</ref>. <br />
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The process was ended before all the charcoal had finished burning because this helped colliers maximize production<ref>Wagner, 2008</ref>. Colliers would typically layer dust over the pile at the end of the burning process and pack it down tightly, leaving the charcoal to cool<ref>Svedelius 1875, 82</ref>. In Sweden, the cooling process may sometimes have been aided by the use of water, where colliers would begin to water the air-tight mound after allowing it to remain undisturbed for twenty-four hours<ref>Svedelius 1875, 89</ref>. Colliers would use flat, wooden scoops to toss water into the air so that it would fall onto the mound like rain, until the dust is no longer able to absorb the water<ref>Svedelius 1875, 89</ref>. The colliers needed to remain vigilant and continue this process as the dust dried<ref>Svedelius 1875, 89</ref>. The first few days of this process watering was required around two or three times a day; by the seventh day, watering was only necessary if the dust continued to dry<ref>Svedelius 1875, 89</ref>. Charcoal is made by partially burning wood to remove water vapor and volatile gases (p. 59 History on the Road, Thomas Straka and Wayne Ramer)<br />
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===Removing the Charcoal===<br />
To remove the finished charcoal, colliers cleared the area surrounding the hearth where the charcoal would be dragged on to<ref>Svedelius 1875, 85</ref> and used a large rake with long tines to collect the charcoal<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, 61</ref>. The tines ensured that the pieces of charcoal were dragged through the dirt on their way out of the hearth and that the charcoal would not be damaged<ref>McVarish 2008, 262</ref>, as it would have been if, for example, a shovel had been used for removal<ref>Svedelius 1875, 85</ref>. The rake has long spokes that are evenly spaced out to ensure that smaller and larger pieces of charcoal get picked up. Raking out the coal can take as many as two to three days. One man explains that they are “foxing the brands” which means that any pieces of coal that are still charring need to be kept under the soil to properly char. <br />
This made sure that no fires would flare up and destroy the charcoal<ref>Wagner, 2008</ref>. It was helpful if colliers had a source of water nearby, as to extinguish any fires that threatened the consumption of the charcoal<ref>Svedelius 1875, 84</ref>, but certainly not all charcoal production locations allowed for this. If the use of water became necessary and water was available, the collier needed to be careful to only use what was necessary to extinguish the fire, as to not sour the charcoal and lessen its value<ref>Svedelius 1875, 85</ref>.It is important to note that charcoal makers did not want small pieces but rather, favored larger chunks that had to be loaded by hand. <br />
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After the charcoal was removed, it was imperative that it be stored somewhere that it would not be affected by poor weather<ref>Svedelius 1875, 85</ref> before being carted away. In some cases it was necessary that a charcoal shed be built to store the charcoal<ref>Svedelius 1875, 87</ref>. The shed would be constructed from billets and situated on a dry area near the hearth<ref>Svedelius 1875, 87</ref>. Once the charcoal cooled down and the threat of reignition past, the charcoal was removed from the cooling shed and moved to the charcoal house<ref>Straka 2010, 61</ref>.<br />
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==Transporting Charcoal==<br />
Initially, most charcoal was moved from the hearths to local furnaces within about 2-5 miles by cart. As furnaces became larger in the late 1800s and early 1900s, charcoal was transported increasingly greater distances. This charcoal served the larger, more efficient furnaces, many of which were in the Midwest and South. In particular, the large furnaces of Michigan were highly dependent upon the movement of charcoal by train car.<ref>Williams 1989, 341-342</ref>. Specialized charcoal cars were designed and widely used, especially in New England, New York, Pennsylvania, Michigan, Alabama and Tennessee.<ref>Journal of the United States Association of Charcoal Iron Workers 1885</ref> In 1882, Bernhard Fernow, the manager of the lands associated with the [[Lehigh Furnace]], loaded 49 box cars with the charcoal of from "860 cords of chestnut, 25 years old, ... and 600 cords of black oak, 38 years old." <ref>Fernow 1882, 21</ref> The intended destination of this charcoal is unclear. One acre per year produces one cord of wood.<ref>Straka and Ramer, 60 </ref><br />
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=Sustainability=<br />
The need for charcoal in the iron industry created a significant demand for wood and a great deal of trees were chopped down for its production. The average output of furnaces between 1750 and 1800 was one hundred to four hundred tons of pig iron per year. This required two hundred to four hundred bushels of charcoal and fifty acres of trees to produce that amount<ref>Straka 2014, 105</ref>. Even though the increased efficiency of furnaces decreased the necessary amount of charcoal, increased production required one hundred fifty acres of wood by 1850 and one thousand four hundred acres by 1900<ref>Straka 2014, 106</ref>.<br />
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Since forests regenerated at different rates, this impacted sustainability. In the Western United States, woodlands took decades to regrow to maturity; so, forest sections usually were cut on a twenty-year cycle<ref> Walker 1966, 121</ref>. Old-growth forests would typically have higher yields<ref>Straka 2014, 105</ref>.<br />
Eastern furnaces were some of the first to manage forests to ensure a sustainable yield<ref>Straka 2014, 111</ref>. Several early proponents of sustainable forestry were involved in the making of charcoal, like Bernhard E. Fernow, the manager of the Lehigh Furnace from 1879 to 1883. He advocated for coppicing of wood and protection from fire and cattle grazing to speed up regrowth of forest used for charcoal<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, 60</ref>.<br />
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==Charcoal versus Coal==<br />
The transition to coal as the primary fuel for furnaces began around 1840, but in 1859 around three-quarters of furnaces in America (particularly in Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York) still primarily used charcoal<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, 59</ref>. Charcoal remained a source of fuel in some places until 1945<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, 61</ref>. Coal was chosen as a replacement for charcoal in part because it was less expensive to transport<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, 59</ref>. Coal being less expensive to transport in comparison to charcoal was largely due to the fact that coal was less bulky and was sourced from established mines unlike charcoal which was produced from scattered timber sources<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, 59</ref>.<br />
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Charcoal, compared to coal, tended to produce a higher quality of iron with fewer impurities, partially because of its density<ref> Straka and Ramer, 2010, 59 </ref>. The use of charcoal also created less smoke using the production process<ref> Straka and Ramer, 2010, 59 </ref>. Iron made from charcoal had a "fine grain" and maintained a better cutting edge<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, 59</ref> in comparison to coal. However, as coal became the primary source of fuel, production moved out of the forests and into cities, which allowed the forests to begin to recover from the impacts of charcoal production.<br />
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==Notes==<br />
<references /><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
*''Agriculture and Rural economy – Charcoal → .'' 2010. The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project. Ann Arbor: Michigan Publishing, University of Michigan Library. [http://hdl.handle.net/2027/spo.did2222.0001.346] [https://artflsrv03.uchicago.edu/philologic4/encyclopedie1117/navigate/18/25/]. Originally published as "Agriculture et économie rustique – Charbon de bois," Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, vol. 1 (plates) (Paris, 1762).<br />
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*Fernow, Bernhard E. 1882. ''The Yield of Wood and When to Cut It.'' Journal of the United States Association of Charcoal Iron Workers 3 (1): 19–26.<br />
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*Gemmell, Alfred. 1949. ''The Charcoal Iron Industry in the Perkiomen Valley.'' Norristown, PA.: Hartenstine Printing House.<br />
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*Jones, Claude A. 1976. ''Making Charcoal at Jacobsburg.'' In Slate Belt Bicentennial Heritage, edited by Marjorie May, Maryann Repsher, Robert R. Saltern, Gordon E. Wilson, and Albert M. Toth, 32–33. Heritage Committee of the Slate Belt Bicentennial Commission.<br />
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* Kemper, Jackson. 1941. ''American Charcoal Making in the Era of the Cold-Blast Furnace.'' History 14. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of the Interior; National Park Service.<br />
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*MeasuringWorth Foundation. 2020. ''Measuring Worth- Relative Worth Comparators and Data Sets''. [https://www.measuringworth.com/index.php . Accessed April 24, 2020]<br />
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*Overman, Frederick. 1854. ''The Manufacture of Iron, in all its Various Branches'' (3rd ed.). Philadelphia: Baird. [https://www.google.com/books/edition/the_manufacture_of_iron_in_all_its_vario/Gani2eHvhAkC?hl=en&gbpv=1]<br />
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*Straka, Thomas J., and Wayne C. Ramer. 2010. ''History on the Road: Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site.'' Forest History Today Spring/Fall: 58–62.[https://foresthistory.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/2010_History-on-Road.pdf]<br />
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*Straka, Thomas J. 2014. ''Historic Charcoal Production in the US and Forest Depletion: Development of Production Parameters.'' Advances in Historical Studies: 104-114.[http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ahs.2014.32010]<br />
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*Svedelius, G., Joseph Leonard W. Nicodemus, and Björn R. Anderson. 1875. ''Hand-book for Charcoal Burners.'' New York: Wiley. [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc2.ark:/13960/t7dr2qz7d&view=1up&seq=166]<br />
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*''Transportation of Charcoal.'' 1885. Journal of the United States Association of Charcoal Iron Workers 6 (2): 117–21.<br />
<br />
*''United States Census, 1860,'' database with images, FamilySearch [https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/3:1:33S7-9BSD-C5Y?cc=1473181&wc=7QL9-Y6C%3A1589434177%2C1589434982%2C1589435676] : 24 March 2017, Pennsylvania > Carbon > East Penn Township > image 2 of 22; from "1860 U.S. Federal Census - Population," database, Fold3.com (http://www.fold3.com : n.d.); citing NARA microfilm publication M653 (Washington, D.C.: National Archives and Records Administration, n.d.).<br />
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*Wagner, Van. 2008. ''Fire the Pit- Charcoal Production in Pennsylvania.'' 4 vols. [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RxW7g3IwD1k]; [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xVE_7hMLMZU]; [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=88FbebFElaY]; [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ghj2p9rrUmM]<br />
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* Walker, Joseph E. 1966. ''Hopewell Village; a Social and Economic History of an Iron-Making Community.'' Philadelphia,: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press.<br />
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*Williams, Michael. 1989. ''Americans and Their Forests : A Historical Geography.'' Cambridge [Cambridgeshire] ; Cambridge University Press.</div>Dmgriederhttps://wiki.ironallentownpa.org/index.php?title=Collier_huts&diff=1642Collier huts2020-09-08T15:15:07Z<p>Dmgrieder: /* Construction */</p>
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<div>While producing charcoal, colliers stayed in temporary huts they constructed located near their hearths<ref> Walker 1966, 242</ref>. Colliers tended to multiple charcoal hearths while they lived on the mountain<ref>Kemper 1941, 8</ref>. Each hearth took approximately two weeks to complete. A collier would mind a hearth closely for the first couple of days; after that, he would spend time starting a new hearth. Colliers could typically tend up to eight hearths at a time<ref>Kemper 1941, 8</ref>.<br />
<br />
==Construction==<br />
Collier huts were conical<ref>Peate and Walton 1958, 58</ref>, with a base eight feet across and ten feet high<ref>Kemper 1941, 8</ref>. The area where a collier decided to construct his hut was cleared of anything that would make the ground uneven, such as brush, stones, or stumps<ref>Kemper 1941, 8</ref>. A master collier and one or two helpers "coaled" together, working as many as eight or nine pits at a time. <ref> National Park Service 1941, 13</ref>. Three inch poles that sloped inward, crossed at the apex<ref>Peate and Walton 1958, 58</ref>, and were bound at the top were used as the basic structure for the huts and the spaces between the poles were filled in with smaller pieces of wood. Leaves and soil were packed in to act as insulation by filling in the gaps between posts<ref>Kemper 1941, 8</ref>. Additionally, collier huts consisted of: a hearth; a small door which hung on framework<ref>Peate and Walton 1958, 60</ref> and was approximately four to six feet in height<ref>Peate and Walton 1958, 62</ref>, and cots constructed out of logs<ref>Kemper 1941, 8</ref>. When identifying the remains of a collier hut, important features to look for are: a trench; a berm, which may have an opening where the door would have been; and a circular depression in the center<ref>Carter et al. 2019, 43-44</ref>.<br />
<br />
==Location==<br />
A collier would construct his hut in a location as central to the charcoal pits he was burning as possible, and would have laid out the hut so that the wooden door, which was large enough for one man to fit through<ref>Kemper 1941, 8</ref>, faced the pits<ref>Walker 1966, 242</ref>. Throughout the [[charcoal production]] process, the charcoal hearths required constant tending to throughout the day and night. If a collier let the fire consume his wood completely, he would be charged for its loss; so proximity to one's hearths was very important<ref>Walker 1966, 247</ref>. The indication of a good collier was one who obtained a high-yield of quality charcoal from the wood he used<ref>Walker 1966, 245</ref>.<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<references /><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
* Carter, Benjamin, Michaela Feinberg, Deborah Grieder, and Stuart Hanford. 2019. ''Charcoal Lands: A report on archaeological investigations in State Games Lands #217, Fall 2018.''<br />
* Kemper, Jackson. 1941. ''American Charcoal Making in the Era of the Cold-Blast Furnace.'' History 14. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of the Interior; National Park Service.<br />
* Peate, Iorwerth C. and James Walton. 1958. "Charcoal Burners Huts." ''Gerwin,'' Vol. 2 (2), 58-67.<br />
* Walker, Joseph E. 1966. ''Hopewell Village; a Social and Economic History of an Iron-Making Community.'' Philadelphia,: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press.</div>Dmgriederhttps://wiki.ironallentownpa.org/index.php?title=Collier_huts&diff=1641Collier huts2020-09-08T15:14:50Z<p>Dmgrieder: /* Construction */</p>
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<div>While producing charcoal, colliers stayed in temporary huts they constructed located near their hearths<ref> Walker 1966, 242</ref>. Colliers tended to multiple charcoal hearths while they lived on the mountain<ref>Kemper 1941, 8</ref>. Each hearth took approximately two weeks to complete. A collier would mind a hearth closely for the first couple of days; after that, he would spend time starting a new hearth. Colliers could typically tend up to eight hearths at a time<ref>Kemper 1941, 8</ref>.<br />
<br />
==Construction==<br />
Collier huts were conical<ref>Peate and Walton 1958, 58</ref>, with a base eight feet across and ten feet high<ref>Kemper 1941, 8</ref>. The area where a collier decided to construct his hut was cleared of anything that would make the ground uneven, such as brush, stones, or stumps<ref>Kemper 1941, 8</ref>. A master collier and one or two helpers "coaled" together, working as many as eight or nine pits at a time. <ref> National Park Service 1941, 13</ref>. Three inch poles that sloped inward, crossed at the apex<ref>Peate and Walton 1958, 58</ref>, and were bound at the top were used as the basic structure for the huts and the spaces between the poles were filled in with smaller pieces of wood. Leaves and soil were packed in to act as insulation by filling in the gaps between posts<ref>Kemper 1941, 8</ref>. Additionally, collier huts consisted of: a hearth; a small door which hung on framework<ref>Peate and Walton 1958, 60</ref> and was approximately four to six feet in height<ref>Peate and Walton 1958, 62</ref>, and cots constructed out of logs<ref>Kemper 1941, 8</ref>. When identifying the remains of a collier hut, important features to look for are: a trench; a berm, which may have an opening where the door would have been; and a circular depression in the center of these features<ref>Carter et al. 2019, 43-44</ref>.<br />
<br />
==Location==<br />
A collier would construct his hut in a location as central to the charcoal pits he was burning as possible, and would have laid out the hut so that the wooden door, which was large enough for one man to fit through<ref>Kemper 1941, 8</ref>, faced the pits<ref>Walker 1966, 242</ref>. Throughout the [[charcoal production]] process, the charcoal hearths required constant tending to throughout the day and night. If a collier let the fire consume his wood completely, he would be charged for its loss; so proximity to one's hearths was very important<ref>Walker 1966, 247</ref>. The indication of a good collier was one who obtained a high-yield of quality charcoal from the wood he used<ref>Walker 1966, 245</ref>.<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<references /><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
* Carter, Benjamin, Michaela Feinberg, Deborah Grieder, and Stuart Hanford. 2019. ''Charcoal Lands: A report on archaeological investigations in State Games Lands #217, Fall 2018.''<br />
* Kemper, Jackson. 1941. ''American Charcoal Making in the Era of the Cold-Blast Furnace.'' History 14. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of the Interior; National Park Service.<br />
* Peate, Iorwerth C. and James Walton. 1958. "Charcoal Burners Huts." ''Gerwin,'' Vol. 2 (2), 58-67.<br />
* Walker, Joseph E. 1966. ''Hopewell Village; a Social and Economic History of an Iron-Making Community.'' Philadelphia,: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press.</div>Dmgriederhttps://wiki.ironallentownpa.org/index.php?title=Collier_huts&diff=1640Collier huts2020-09-08T15:13:08Z<p>Dmgrieder: /* Construction */</p>
<hr />
<div>While producing charcoal, colliers stayed in temporary huts they constructed located near their hearths<ref> Walker 1966, 242</ref>. Colliers tended to multiple charcoal hearths while they lived on the mountain<ref>Kemper 1941, 8</ref>. Each hearth took approximately two weeks to complete. A collier would mind a hearth closely for the first couple of days; after that, he would spend time starting a new hearth. Colliers could typically tend up to eight hearths at a time<ref>Kemper 1941, 8</ref>.<br />
<br />
==Construction==<br />
Collier huts were conical<ref>Peate and Walton 1958, 58</ref>, with a base eight feet across and ten feet high<ref>Kemper 1941, 8</ref>. The area where a collier decided to construct his hut was cleared of anything that would make the ground uneven, such as brush, stones, or stumps<ref>Kemper 1941, 8</ref>. A master collier and one or two helpers "coaled" together, working as many as eight or nine pits at a time. <ref> National Park Service 1941, 13</ref>. Three inch poles that sloped inward, crossed at the apex<ref>Peate and Walton 1958, 58</ref>, and were bound at the top were used as the basic structure for the huts and the spaces between the poles were filled in with smaller pieces of wood. Leaves and soil were packed in to act as insulation by filling in the gaps between posts<ref>Kemper 1941, 8</ref>. Additionally, collier huts consisted of: a hearth; a small door which hung on framework<ref>Peate and Walton 1958, 60</ref> and was approximately four to six feet in height<ref>Peate and Walton 1958, 62</ref>, and cots constructed out of logs<ref>Kemper 1941, 8</ref>. The hearth had to be level to ensure uniform burning. The hearth of the charcoal pit was a flat space 30 or 40 feet in diameter and free of all brush, roots, and stumps. An open level spot was chosen and great care was taken of that the surface to afford good shoveling and raking of the coal. <ref> National Park Service 1941, 13</ref>. When identifying the remains of a collier hut, important features to look for are: a trench; a berm, which may have an opening where the door would have been; and a circular depression in the center of these<ref>Carter et al. 2019, 43-44</ref>.<br />
<br />
==Location==<br />
A collier would construct his hut in a location as central to the charcoal pits he was burning as possible, and would have laid out the hut so that the wooden door, which was large enough for one man to fit through<ref>Kemper 1941, 8</ref>, faced the pits<ref>Walker 1966, 242</ref>. Throughout the [[charcoal production]] process, the charcoal hearths required constant tending to throughout the day and night. If a collier let the fire consume his wood completely, he would be charged for its loss; so proximity to one's hearths was very important<ref>Walker 1966, 247</ref>. The indication of a good collier was one who obtained a high-yield of quality charcoal from the wood he used<ref>Walker 1966, 245</ref>.<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<references /><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
* Carter, Benjamin, Michaela Feinberg, Deborah Grieder, and Stuart Hanford. 2019. ''Charcoal Lands: A report on archaeological investigations in State Games Lands #217, Fall 2018.''<br />
* Kemper, Jackson. 1941. ''American Charcoal Making in the Era of the Cold-Blast Furnace.'' History 14. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of the Interior; National Park Service.<br />
* Peate, Iorwerth C. and James Walton. 1958. "Charcoal Burners Huts." ''Gerwin,'' Vol. 2 (2), 58-67.<br />
* Walker, Joseph E. 1966. ''Hopewell Village; a Social and Economic History of an Iron-Making Community.'' Philadelphia,: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press.</div>Dmgriederhttps://wiki.ironallentownpa.org/index.php?title=Collier_huts&diff=1457Collier huts2020-09-02T18:45:52Z<p>Dmgrieder: /* References */</p>
<hr />
<div>While producing charcoal, colliers stayed in temporary huts they constructed located near their hearths<ref> Walker 1966, 242</ref>. Colliers tended to multiple charcoal hearths while they lived on the mountain<ref>Kemper 1941, 8</ref>. Each hearth took approximately two weeks to complete. A collier would mind a hearth closely for the first couple of days; after that, he would spend time starting a new hearth. Colliers could typically tend up to eight hearths at a time<ref>Kemper 1941, 8</ref>.<br />
<br />
==Construction==<br />
Collier huts were conical<ref>Peate and Walton 1958, 58</ref>, with a base eight feet across and ten feet high<ref>Kemper 1941, 8</ref>. The area where a collier decided to construct his hut was cleared of anything that would make the ground uneven, such as brush, stones, or stumps<ref>Kemper 1941, 8</ref>. Three inch poles that sloped inward, crossed at the apex<ref>Peate and Walton 1958, 58</ref>, and were bound at the top were used as the basic structure for the huts and the spaces between the poles were filled in with smaller pieces of wood. Leaves and soil were packed in to act as insulation by filling in the gaps between posts<ref>Kemper 1941, 8</ref>. Additionally, collier huts consisted of: a hearth; a small door, which hung on framework<ref>Peate and Walton 1958, 60</ref> and was approximately four to six feet in height<ref>Peate and Walton 1958, 62</ref>, and cots constructed out of logs<ref>Kemper 1941, 8</ref>.<br />
When identifying the remains of a collier hut, important features to look for are: a trench; a berm, which may have an opening where the door would have been; and a circular depression in the center of these<ref>Carter et al. 2019, 43-44</ref>.<br />
<br />
==Location==<br />
A collier would construct his hut in a location as central to the charcoal pits he was burning as possible, and would have laid out the hut so that the wooden door, which was large enough for one man to fit through<ref>Kemper 1941, 8</ref>, faced the pits<ref>Walker 1966, 242</ref>. Throughout the [[charcoal production]] process, the charcoal hearths required constant tending to throughout the day and night. If a collier let the fire consume his wood completely, he would be charged for its loss; so proximity to one's hearths was very important<ref>Walker 1966, 247</ref>. The indication of a good collier was one who obtained a high-yield of quality charcoal from the wood he used<ref>Walker 1966, 245</ref>.<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<references /><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
* Carter, Benjamin, Michaela Feinberg, Deborah Grieder, and Stuart Hanford. 2019. ''Charcoal Lands: A report on archaeological investigations in State Games Lands #217, Fall 2018.''<br />
* Kemper, Jackson. 1941. ''American Charcoal Making in the Era of the Cold-Blast Furnace.'' History 14. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of the Interior; National Park Service.<br />
* Peate, Iorwerth C. and James Walton. 1958. "Charcoal Burners Huts." ''Gerwin,'' Vol. 2 (2), 58-67.<br />
* Walker, Joseph E. 1966. ''Hopewell Village; a Social and Economic History of an Iron-Making Community.'' Philadelphia,: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press.</div>Dmgriederhttps://wiki.ironallentownpa.org/index.php?title=1865_Aschbach_Map_of_Lehigh_County&diff=2101865 Aschbach Map of Lehigh County2018-10-09T18:36:34Z<p>Dmgrieder: /* Details */</p>
<hr />
<div>The 1865 map of Lehigh County was completed and published by [[Gustavus A. Aschbach (1826-1875)]] of Allentown, PA. The map is derived from original surveys also by Aschbach. <br />
<br />
==Details==<br />
<br />
=Map Border=<br />
Starting on the left of the map's title, which is found in the middle of the top, is a chain of drawings depicting different stills of the region from around 1865.<br />
<br />
The first is a shot of the [[Allentown Fire Brick works,]] underneath which it states [[M'Hose and Ritter, Allentown, Lehigh Co. PA.<br />
]]<br />
[[Allentown Foundry & Machine Works]] is next, "Thayer, Erdmann, Wilson & Co. Manufacturers of steam engines, boilers, coal and freight cars, shafting and mill gearing, furnace and mining work &C." written underneath. <br />
<br />
Next up is a still of the [[Crane Iron Works]] in all of its smoking glory, followed by the [[Allentown courthouse]], [[Allentown's Little Lehigh Mills]] (Distillery and farm, proprietor E. Schrieber), and [[Lehigh Furnace. <br />
]]<br />
The next two pieces depict the residences of [[John Biery Esq]]. in Orefield P.O, [[Geo.P. Weils]] in S.E. Cor. Union & 8th Sts, Allentown, PA. <br />
<br />
Breaking up the drawings, we can find the Statistical Table of Lehigh County, Census 1860. It documents the inhabitants, square miles, increase since 1850, Families, Farms, and Houses from the 5 boroughs of Allentown, as well as the townships of Hanover, Heidelberg, Lowhill, Lynn, Macungie Lower and Upper, Milford Lower and Upper, Salsburg, Upper Saucon, Washington, Weissenburg, and Whitehall South and North. <br />
<br />
Following this lengthy chart, a depiction of the residence of [[Henry King Esq.]] (Hamilton St., Allentown PA), [[Kern and Maier's Brewery]], office and saloon, (Odd Fellow's Hall, Allentown PA), and the residence of [[James Fuller Esq]]. (Front Street, Catasauqua) can be found. <br />
<br />
Next comes the [[Lehigh County Poorhouse]], as well as the [[Allentown Seminary]]. No addresses are documented for these locations. <br />
<br />
Along the bottom of the map, The [[Iron Mines at Ironton]] is shown, followed by the bustling [[Allentown Iron Works]] and a lovely scenic View of Allentown, PA. The [[Allentown Rolling Mill Company]], with its [[Puddling Mill,]] [[Boilerhouse]], [[Rail Mill]] and office clearly labeled, as well as the [[Slatington & Quarries of Lehigh Slate Co.]] which follows closely behind. <br />
<br />
Starting the column on the right is the [[Allentown Academy]], Cox. VIIIth & Walnut St. Allentown, PA, the [[Fountain Mills in Cedar Springs]] owned by [[Hiram J. Schantz]], and the residence of [[David Thomas Esq]]., Cor 2nd & Pine St, Catasauqua. Next is a smoky depiction of the [[Allentown Woollen Mills]] owned by [[Henry Gabriel]], and the residence of [[CHs Kline Esq]]., Cor. VIth & Chew Sts. Allentown PA.<br />
<br />
Interrupting the flow of drawings is a large template placed exactly across from the census called [[Historical Notes of Lehigh County]]. Above of this placard is a scene of te Residence of [[Sam L. A. Bridges Esq]], Cor. Hamilton & 5th Sts, Allentown PA, the [[Lanark residence]] of [[C. Whittman]] and the [[Muehlberg Vineyard]] in Saucon Valley PA, The [[Lehigh Valley Ironworks]] at the Junction of the Lehigh Valley and Ironton Rail Roads, [[Schreiber's Distillery and Farm]] at Schreiber's Station at the junction of the Ironton and Lehigh Valley R.R, and the [[Fairhouse of the Lehigh County Agricultural Society]] in Allentown, PA ends the column on the right of the map. <br />
<br />
The two panels on the right of the map's title (working from the right corner inwards), are the [[Lehigh Tube Works]], Albright & Co. found at Front St. Allentown, PA, and [[P.S Pretz & Co. Steam Planing Mill and Lumber Yard]] located on the Corner of 3rd & Union St. Allentown, PA.</div>Dmgriederhttps://wiki.ironallentownpa.org/index.php?title=John_Balliet_(1819-1886)&diff=194John Balliet (1819-1886)2018-10-01T17:27:44Z<p>Dmgrieder: </p>
<hr />
<div>==Family==<br />
<br />
John Balliet was born on November 13, 1819 in Ballietsville, North Whitehall township. Pennsylvania<ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 556.</ref> to [[Stephen Balliet (1781-1854)]] and [[Susan Iherie]]. His grandparents were Stephen Balliet and [[Magdalena Burkhalter Balliet]] <ref>Brenckman 1913, p. 370.</ref>.<ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 556.</ref> John Balliet married Amanda Rehrig (a.k.a. Rahrig or Rohrig; 1838-1907). Brenckman indicates that they had eleven children <ref>Brenckman 1913, p. 370.</ref> However, it is clear that four of those children were with Elizabeth Dankel. He may have had seven children with Amanda, including [[Isabella Balliet]] (1854-1888; Possibly the same as Martha Balliet Neyer), [[Alice Balliet]] (1859-1879), [[Lewis Balliet]] (1863-?),[[Emma Balliet Semmel]] (1864-1934), [[John William Balliet]] (1869-1934), and [[Harry Balliet]] (1878-1949) <ref>Brenckman 1913, p. 370.</ref>.<br />
<br />
From 1856- 1878, John Balliet lived with [[Elizabeth Dankel]] (1839-?) as his wife (who was 15-16 at first), though they were not married. During this time, they had four children, including Susan Balliet (1853–1888), Steven John Balliet (1860–1919), Mary J. Balliet (1863–1923), and Minerva Balliet (1870–1951). After residing in East Penn[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Penn_Township,_Carbon_County,_Pennsylvania] until May, 1866, they moved to Slatington [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slatington,_Pennsylvania], where they purchased land and built them a house. In 1874, Balliet left Dankel and brought suit against her to force her out of the Slatington house. Although the local judge agreed with Balliet, the case went to the Supreme Court, who ruled that Balliet legally possessed the land. (Reading Times, March 12, 1878 [http://www.newspapers.com/image/46391696]; Weekly Notes of Cases 1880, 387-388 [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZQkVAAAAYAAJ&lpg=PA387&ots=L4w9yQ0RpA&dq=john%20Balliet%20Elizabeth%20Dankel&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q=john%20Balliet%20Elizabeth%20Dankel&f=false.]). Census records indicate that Elizabeth resided with John in 1860 [https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/3:1:33SQ-GBSX-9PN3?cc=1473181&wc=7QTM-9KJ%3A1589434177%2C1589435020%2C1589422406], but not in 1870 [https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/3:1:S3HY-6LWS-YDY?cc=1438024&wc=9227-RMZ%3A518666601%2C520079001%2C520081501] or in 1880 [https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/3:1:33S7-9YBH-GD7?cc=1417683&wc=QZ27-THY%3A1589394781%2C1589413376%2C1589413679%2C1589395442]. In the 1880 census [https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/3:1:33S7-9YBH-GD7?cc=1417683&wc=QZ27-THY%3A1589394781%2C1589413376%2C1589413679%2C1589395442], Elizabeth is listed as "keeping house" in the house of [[John Rowine]] in Slatington. <br />
<br />
It appears that both Amanda and Elizabeth were 15-16 when they had their first children with John and they had them at approximately the same time. John appears to have had two separate families. <br />
<br />
John Balliet died on January 5, 1886.<br />
<br />
==Early Life==<br />
"After limited advantages of education,"<ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 556.</ref> John Balliet worked at the [[Lehigh Furnace]] to "learn the ropes" after finishing some limited schooling. <ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 555.</ref> He later became the co-owner (with his brothers Paul and Aaron) and superintendent of said property. <ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 555.</ref><br />
<br />
==Places of Residence and Work==<br />
After moving away from his hometown, John Balliet moved East Penn Township to become the superintendent of the [[East Penn Furnace]], which was destroyed by floods. John Balliet rebuilt, leased, and successfully ran the furnace for many years. In 1872 he moved to Bowmansville [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bowmansville,_Pennsylvania], where he married Amanda Rehrig. <ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 556.</ref> <br />
<br />
==Business==<br />
John Balliet was the owner of Balliet's charcoal furnace in Ashfield [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashfield,_Pennsylvania](Brenckman 1913, p.370), also known as the [[East Penn Furnace]].<br />
<br />
[[East Penn Forge]]<br />
<br />
[[Lehigh Furnace]]<br />
<br />
John Balliet owned extensive real estate, as well as built and refurbished buildings<ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 556.</ref>. He also owned the first store in Bowmanstown and was the owner of the Bowmanstown Hotel (Brenckman 1913, p.370). Much of this land was used for [[charcoal production]] for use as fuel in the two iron furnaces and the forge. <br />
<br />
John Balliet was also the director of Slatington Bank, and a shareholder of the Lehigh furnace in Allentown and Coplay.<ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 556.</ref> <br />
<br />
John Balliet's lands, totaling more than 800 acres were sold at an Orphans' Court Sale on Dec. 20, 1890 [http://www.newspapers.com/image/75681105/"(Carbon Advocate December 13, 1890)"]<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<references /><br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
*Mathews, Alfred, and Austin N Hungerford. 1884. History of the Counties of Lehigh and Carbon, in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. Philadelphia: Everts & Richards.<br />
*Brenckman, Frederick Charles. 1913. History of Carbon County, Pennsylvania: Also Containing a Separate Account of the Several Boroughs and Townships in the County, with Biographical Sketches. Harrisburg, Pa: J. J. Nungesser.<br />
*The Carbon Advocate. 1890. “Orphans’ Court Sale of Very Valuable Real Estate!- John Balliet,” December 13, 1890.<br />
*Reading Times. 1878. “What Constitutes a Conveyance of Land,” March 12, 1878.<br />
*Weekly Notes of Cases Argued and Determined in the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania, The County Courts of Philadelphia, and the United States District Courts for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania by Members of the Bar. 1880. Vol. VIII. Philadelphia, Pa.: Kay and Brother. [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZQkVAAAAYAAJ&lpg=PA387&ots=L4w9yQ0RpA&dq=john%20Balliet%20Elizabeth%20Dankel&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q=john%20Balliet%20Elizabeth%20Dankel&f=false.]<br />
*"United States Census, 1860," database with images, FamilySearch (https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/3:1:33SQ-GBSX-9PN3?cc=1473181&wc=7QTM-9KJ%3A1589434177%2C1589435020%2C1589422406 : 24 March 2017), Pennsylvania > Lehigh > Washington Township > image 59 of 61; from "1860 U.S. Federal Census - Population," database, Fold3.com (http://www.fold3.com : n.d.); citing NARA microfilm publication M653 (Washington, D.C.: National Archives and Records Administration, n.d.).<br />
*"United States Census, 1870," database with images, FamilySearch (https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/3:1:S3HY-6LWS-YDY?cc=1438024&wc=9227-RMZ%3A518666601%2C520079001%2C520081501 : 22 May 2014), Pennsylvania > Lehigh > Slatington > image 32 of 40; citing NARA microfilm publication M593 (Washington, D.C.: National Archives and Records Administration, n.d.).<br />
*"United States Census, 1880," database with images, FamilySearch (https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/3:1:33S7-9YBH-GD7?cc=1417683&wc=QZ27-THY%3A1589394781%2C1589413376%2C1589413679%2C1589395442 : 24 December 2015), Pennsylvania > Lehigh > Slatington > ED 188 > image 31 of 33; citing NARA microfilm publication T9 (Washington, D.C.: National Archives and Records Administration, n.d.).</div>Dmgriederhttps://wiki.ironallentownpa.org/index.php?title=John_Balliet_(1819-1886)&diff=193John Balliet (1819-1886)2018-10-01T17:25:31Z<p>Dmgrieder: </p>
<hr />
<div>==Family==<br />
<br />
John Balliet was born on November 13, 1819 in Ballietsville, North Whitehall township. Pennsylvania<ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 556.</ref> to [[Stephen Balliet (1781-1854)]] and [[Susan Iherie]]. His grandparents were Stephen Balliet and [[Magdalena Burkhalter Balliet]] <ref>Brenckman 1913, p. 370.</ref>.<ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 556.</ref> John Balliet married Amanda Rehrig (a.k.a. Rahrig or Rohrig; 1838-1907). Brenckman indicates that they had eleven children <ref>Brenckman 1913, p. 370.</ref> However, it is clear that four of those children were with Elizabeth Dankel. He may have had seven children with Amanda, including [[Isabella Balliet]] (1854-1888; Possibly the same as Martha Balliet Neyer), [[Alice Balliet]] (1859-1879), [[Lewis Balliet]] (1863-?),[[Emma Balliet Semmel]] (1864-1934), [[John William Balliet]] (1869-1934), and [[Harry Balliet]] (1878-1949) <ref>Brenckman 1913, p. 370.</ref>.<br />
<br />
From 1856- 1878, John Balliet lived with [[Elizabeth Dankel]] (1839-?) as his wife (who was 15-16 at first), though they were not married. During this time, they had four children, including Susan Balliet (1853–1888), Steven John Balliet (1860–1919), Mary J. Balliet (1863–1923), and Minerva Balliet (1870–1951). After residing in East Penn[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Penn_Township,_Carbon_County,_Pennsylvania] until May, 1866, they moved to Slatington [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slatington,_Pennsylvania], where they purchased land and built them a house. In 1874, Balliet left Dankel and brought suit against her to force her out of the Slatington house. Although the local judge agreed with Balliet, the case went to the Supreme Court, who ruled that Balliet legally possessed the land. (Reading Times, March 12, 1878 [http://www.newspapers.com/image/46391696]; Weekly Notes of Cases 1880, 387-388 [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZQkVAAAAYAAJ&lpg=PA387&ots=L4w9yQ0RpA&dq=john%20Balliet%20Elizabeth%20Dankel&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q=john%20Balliet%20Elizabeth%20Dankel&f=false.]). Census records indicate that Elizabeth resided with John in 1860 [https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/3:1:33SQ-GBSX-9PN3?cc=1473181&wc=7QTM-9KJ%3A1589434177%2C1589435020%2C1589422406], but not in 1870 [https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/3:1:S3HY-6LWS-YDY?cc=1438024&wc=9227-RMZ%3A518666601%2C520079001%2C520081501] or in 1880 [https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/3:1:33S7-9YBH-GD7?cc=1417683&wc=QZ27-THY%3A1589394781%2C1589413376%2C1589413679%2C1589395442]. In the 1880 census [https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/3:1:33S7-9YBH-GD7?cc=1417683&wc=QZ27-THY%3A1589394781%2C1589413376%2C1589413679%2C1589395442], Elizabeth is listed as "keeping house" in the house of [[John Rowine]] in Slatington. <br />
<br />
It appears that both Amanda and Elizabeth were 15-16 when they had their first children with John and they had them at approximately the same time. John appears to have had two separate families. <br />
<br />
John Balliet died on January 5, 1886.<br />
<br />
==Early Life==<br />
"After limited advantages of education,"<ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 556.</ref> John Balliet worked at the [[Lehigh Furnace]] to "learn the ropes" after finishing some limited schooling. <ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 555.</ref> He later became the co-owner (with his brothers Paul and Aaron) and superintendent of said property. <ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 555.</ref><br />
<br />
==Places of Residence and Work==<br />
After moving away from his hometown, John Balliet moved East Penn Township to become the superintendent of the [[East Penn Furnace]], which was destroyed by floods. John Balliet rebuilt, leased, and successfully ran the furnace for many years. In 1872 he moved to Bowmansville, where he married Amanda Rehrig. <ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 556.</ref> <br />
<br />
==Business==<br />
John Balliet was the owner of Balliet's charcoal furnace in Ashfield (Brenckman 1913, p.370), also known as the [[East Penn Furnace]].<br />
<br />
[[East Penn Forge]]<br />
<br />
[[Lehigh Furnace]]<br />
<br />
John Balliet owned extensive real estate, as well as built and refurbished buildings<ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 556.</ref>. He also owned the first store in Bowmanstown and was the owner of the Bowmanstown Hotel (Brenckman 1913, p.370). Much of this land was used for [[charcoal production]] for use as fuel in the two iron furnaces and the forge. <br />
<br />
John Balliet was also the director of Slatington Bank, and a shareholder of the Lehigh furnace in Allentown and Coplay.<ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 556.</ref> <br />
<br />
John Balliet's lands, totaling more than 800 acres were sold at an Orphans' Court Sale on Dec. 20, 1890 [http://www.newspapers.com/image/75681105/"(Carbon Advocate December 13, 1890)"]<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<references /><br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
*Mathews, Alfred, and Austin N Hungerford. 1884. History of the Counties of Lehigh and Carbon, in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. Philadelphia: Everts & Richards.<br />
*Brenckman, Frederick Charles. 1913. History of Carbon County, Pennsylvania: Also Containing a Separate Account of the Several Boroughs and Townships in the County, with Biographical Sketches. Harrisburg, Pa: J. J. Nungesser.<br />
*The Carbon Advocate. 1890. “Orphans’ Court Sale of Very Valuable Real Estate!- John Balliet,” December 13, 1890.<br />
*Reading Times. 1878. “What Constitutes a Conveyance of Land,” March 12, 1878.<br />
*Weekly Notes of Cases Argued and Determined in the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania, The County Courts of Philadelphia, and the United States District Courts for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania by Members of the Bar. 1880. Vol. VIII. Philadelphia, Pa.: Kay and Brother. [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZQkVAAAAYAAJ&lpg=PA387&ots=L4w9yQ0RpA&dq=john%20Balliet%20Elizabeth%20Dankel&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q=john%20Balliet%20Elizabeth%20Dankel&f=false.]<br />
*"United States Census, 1860," database with images, FamilySearch (https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/3:1:33SQ-GBSX-9PN3?cc=1473181&wc=7QTM-9KJ%3A1589434177%2C1589435020%2C1589422406 : 24 March 2017), Pennsylvania > Lehigh > Washington Township > image 59 of 61; from "1860 U.S. Federal Census - Population," database, Fold3.com (http://www.fold3.com : n.d.); citing NARA microfilm publication M653 (Washington, D.C.: National Archives and Records Administration, n.d.).<br />
*"United States Census, 1870," database with images, FamilySearch (https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/3:1:S3HY-6LWS-YDY?cc=1438024&wc=9227-RMZ%3A518666601%2C520079001%2C520081501 : 22 May 2014), Pennsylvania > Lehigh > Slatington > image 32 of 40; citing NARA microfilm publication M593 (Washington, D.C.: National Archives and Records Administration, n.d.).<br />
*"United States Census, 1880," database with images, FamilySearch (https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/3:1:33S7-9YBH-GD7?cc=1417683&wc=QZ27-THY%3A1589394781%2C1589413376%2C1589413679%2C1589395442 : 24 December 2015), Pennsylvania > Lehigh > Slatington > ED 188 > image 31 of 33; citing NARA microfilm publication T9 (Washington, D.C.: National Archives and Records Administration, n.d.).</div>Dmgriederhttps://wiki.ironallentownpa.org/index.php?title=John_Balliet_(1819-1886)&diff=191John Balliet (1819-1886)2018-10-01T17:23:53Z<p>Dmgrieder: </p>
<hr />
<div>==Family==<br />
<br />
John Balliet was born on November 13, 1819 in Ballietsville, North Whitehall township. Pennsylvania<ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 556.</ref> to [[Stephen Balliet (1781-1854)]] and [[Susan Iherie]]. His grandparents were Stephen Balliet and [[Magdalena Burkhalter Balliet]] <ref>Brenckman 1913, p. 370.</ref>.<ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 556.</ref> John Balliet married Amanda Rehrig (a.k.a. Rahrig or Rohrig; 1838-1907). Brenckman indicates that they had eleven children <ref>Brenckman 1913, p. 370.</ref> However, it is clear that four of those children were with Elizabeth Dankel. He may have had seven children with Amanda, including [[Isabella Balliet]] (1854-1888; Possibly the same as Martha Balliet Neyer), [[Alice Balliet]] (1859-1879), [[Lewis Balliet]] (1863-?),[[Emma Balliet Semmel]] (1864-1934), [[John William Balliet]] (1869-1934), and [[Harry Balliet]] (1878-1949) <ref>Brenckman 1913, p. 370.</ref>.<br />
<br />
From 1856- 1878, John Balliet lived with [[Elizabeth Dankel]] (1839-?) as his wife (who was 15-16 at first), though they were not married. During this time, they had four children, including Susan Balliet (1853–1888), Steven John Balliet (1860–1919), Mary J. Balliet (1863–1923), and Minerva Balliet (1870–1951). After residing in East Penn[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Penn_Township,_Carbon_County,_Pennsylvania] until May, 1866, they moved to Slatington [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slatington,_Pennsylvania], where they purchased land and built them a house. In 1874, Balliet left Dankel and brought suit against her to force her out of the Slatington house. Although the local judge agreed with Balliet, the case went to the Supreme Court, who ruled that Balliet legally possessed the land. (Reading Times, March 12, 1878 [http://www.newspapers.com/image/46391696]; Weekly Notes of Cases 1880, 387-388 [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZQkVAAAAYAAJ&lpg=PA387&ots=L4w9yQ0RpA&dq=john%20Balliet%20Elizabeth%20Dankel&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q=john%20Balliet%20Elizabeth%20Dankel&f=false.]). Census records indicate that Elizabeth resided with John in 1860 [https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/3:1:33SQ-GBSX-9PN3?cc=1473181&wc=7QTM-9KJ%3A1589434177%2C1589435020%2C1589422406], but not in 1870 [https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/3:1:S3HY-6LWS-YDY?cc=1438024&wc=9227-RMZ%3A518666601%2C520079001%2C520081501] or in 1880 [https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/3:1:33S7-9YBH-GD7?cc=1417683&wc=QZ27-THY%3A1589394781%2C1589413376%2C1589413679%2C1589395442]. In the 1880 census [https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/3:1:33S7-9YBH-GD7?cc=1417683&wc=QZ27-THY%3A1589394781%2C1589413376%2C1589413679%2C1589395442], Elizabeth is listed as "keeping house" in the house of John Rowine in Slatington. <br />
<br />
It appears that both Amanda and Elizabeth were 15-16 when they had their first children with John and they had them at approximately the same time. John appears to have had two separate families. <br />
<br />
John Balliet died on January 5, 1886.<br />
<br />
==Early Life==<br />
"After limited advantages of education,"<ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 556.</ref> John Balliet worked at the [[Lehigh Furnace]] to "learn the ropes" after finishing some limited schooling. <ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 555.</ref> He later became the co-owner (with his brothers Paul and Aaron) and superintendent of said property. <ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 555.</ref><br />
<br />
==Places of Residence and Work==<br />
After moving away from his hometown, John Balliet moved East Penn Township to become the superintendent of the [[East Penn Furnace]], which was destroyed by floods. John Balliet rebuilt, leased, and successfully ran the furnace for many years. In 1872 he moved to Bowmansville, where he married Amanda Rehrig. <ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 556.</ref> <br />
<br />
==Business==<br />
John Balliet was the owner of Balliet's charcoal furnace in Ashfield (Brenckman 1913, p.370), also known as the [[East Penn Furnace]].<br />
<br />
[[East Penn Forge]]<br />
<br />
[[Lehigh Furnace]]<br />
<br />
John Balliet owned extensive real estate, as well as built and refurbished buildings<ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 556.</ref>. He also owned the first store in Bowmanstown and was the owner of the Bowmanstown Hotel (Brenckman 1913, p.370). Much of this land was used for [[charcoal production]] for use as fuel in the two iron furnaces and the forge. <br />
<br />
John Balliet was also the director of Slatington Bank, and a shareholder of the Lehigh furnace in Allentown and Coplay.<ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 556.</ref> <br />
<br />
John Balliet's lands, totaling more than 800 acres were sold at an Orphans' Court Sale on Dec. 20, 1890 [http://www.newspapers.com/image/75681105/"(Carbon Advocate December 13, 1890)"]<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<references /><br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
*Mathews, Alfred, and Austin N Hungerford. 1884. History of the Counties of Lehigh and Carbon, in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. Philadelphia: Everts & Richards.<br />
*Brenckman, Frederick Charles. 1913. History of Carbon County, Pennsylvania: Also Containing a Separate Account of the Several Boroughs and Townships in the County, with Biographical Sketches. Harrisburg, Pa: J. J. Nungesser.<br />
*The Carbon Advocate. 1890. “Orphans’ Court Sale of Very Valuable Real Estate!- John Balliet,” December 13, 1890.<br />
*Reading Times. 1878. “What Constitutes a Conveyance of Land,” March 12, 1878.<br />
*Weekly Notes of Cases Argued and Determined in the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania, The County Courts of Philadelphia, and the United States District Courts for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania by Members of the Bar. 1880. Vol. VIII. Philadelphia, Pa.: Kay and Brother. [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZQkVAAAAYAAJ&lpg=PA387&ots=L4w9yQ0RpA&dq=john%20Balliet%20Elizabeth%20Dankel&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q=john%20Balliet%20Elizabeth%20Dankel&f=false.]<br />
*"United States Census, 1860," database with images, FamilySearch (https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/3:1:33SQ-GBSX-9PN3?cc=1473181&wc=7QTM-9KJ%3A1589434177%2C1589435020%2C1589422406 : 24 March 2017), Pennsylvania > Lehigh > Washington Township > image 59 of 61; from "1860 U.S. Federal Census - Population," database, Fold3.com (http://www.fold3.com : n.d.); citing NARA microfilm publication M653 (Washington, D.C.: National Archives and Records Administration, n.d.).<br />
*"United States Census, 1870," database with images, FamilySearch (https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/3:1:S3HY-6LWS-YDY?cc=1438024&wc=9227-RMZ%3A518666601%2C520079001%2C520081501 : 22 May 2014), Pennsylvania > Lehigh > Slatington > image 32 of 40; citing NARA microfilm publication M593 (Washington, D.C.: National Archives and Records Administration, n.d.).<br />
*"United States Census, 1880," database with images, FamilySearch (https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/3:1:33S7-9YBH-GD7?cc=1417683&wc=QZ27-THY%3A1589394781%2C1589413376%2C1589413679%2C1589395442 : 24 December 2015), Pennsylvania > Lehigh > Slatington > ED 188 > image 31 of 33; citing NARA microfilm publication T9 (Washington, D.C.: National Archives and Records Administration, n.d.).</div>Dmgriederhttps://wiki.ironallentownpa.org/index.php?title=John_Balliet_(1819-1886)&diff=190John Balliet (1819-1886)2018-10-01T17:22:24Z<p>Dmgrieder: </p>
<hr />
<div>==Family==<br />
<br />
John Balliet was born on November 13, 1819 in Ballietsville, North Whitehall township. Pennsylvania<ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 556.</ref> to [[Stephen Balliet (1781-1854)]] and [[Susan Iherie]]. His grandparents were Stephen Balliet and [[Magdalena Burkhalter Balliet]] <ref>Brenckman 1913, p. 370.</ref>.<ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 556.</ref> John Balliet married Amanda Rehrig (a.k.a. Rahrig or Rohrig; 1838-1907). Brenckman indicates that they had eleven children <ref>Brenckman 1913, p. 370.</ref> However, it is clear that four of those children were with Elizabeth Dankel. He may have had seven children with Amanda, including [[Isabella Balliet]] (1854-1888; Possibly the same as Martha Balliet Neyer), [[Alice Balliet]] (1859-1879), [[Lewis Balliet]] (1863-?),[[Emma Balliet Semmel]] (1864-1934), [[John William Balliet]] (1869-1934), and [[Harry Balliet]] (1878-1949) <ref>Brenckman 1913, p. 370.</ref>.<br />
<br />
From 1856- 1878, John Balliet lived with [[Elizabeth Dankel]] (1839-?) as his wife (who was 15-16 at first), though they were not married. During this time, they had four children, including Susan Balliet (1853–1888), Steven John Balliet (1860–1919), Mary J. Balliet (1863–1923), and Minerva Balliet (1870–1951). After residing in East Penn until May, 1866, they moved to Slatington [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slatington,_Pennsylvania], where they purchased land and built them a house. In 1874, Balliet left Dankel and brought suit against her to force her out of the Slatington house. Although the local judge agreed with Balliet, the case went to the Supreme Court, who ruled that Balliet legally possessed the land. (Reading Times, March 12, 1878 [http://www.newspapers.com/image/46391696]; Weekly Notes of Cases 1880, 387-388 [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZQkVAAAAYAAJ&lpg=PA387&ots=L4w9yQ0RpA&dq=john%20Balliet%20Elizabeth%20Dankel&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q=john%20Balliet%20Elizabeth%20Dankel&f=false.]). Census records indicate that Elizabeth resided with John in 1860 [https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/3:1:33SQ-GBSX-9PN3?cc=1473181&wc=7QTM-9KJ%3A1589434177%2C1589435020%2C1589422406], but not in 1870 [https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/3:1:S3HY-6LWS-YDY?cc=1438024&wc=9227-RMZ%3A518666601%2C520079001%2C520081501] or in 1880 [https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/3:1:33S7-9YBH-GD7?cc=1417683&wc=QZ27-THY%3A1589394781%2C1589413376%2C1589413679%2C1589395442]. In the 1880 census [https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/3:1:33S7-9YBH-GD7?cc=1417683&wc=QZ27-THY%3A1589394781%2C1589413376%2C1589413679%2C1589395442], Elizabeth is listed as "keeping house" in the house of John Rowine in Slatington. <br />
<br />
It appears that both Amanda and Elizabeth were 15-16 when they had their first children with John and they had them at approximately the same time. John appears to have had two separate families. <br />
<br />
John Balliet died on January 5, 1886.<br />
<br />
==Early Life==<br />
"After limited advantages of education,"<ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 556.</ref> John Balliet worked at the [[Lehigh Furnace]] to "learn the ropes" after finishing some limited schooling. <ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 555.</ref> He later became the co-owner (with his brothers Paul and Aaron) and superintendent of said property. <ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 555.</ref><br />
<br />
==Places of Residence and Work==<br />
After moving away from his hometown, John Balliet moved East Penn Township to become the superintendent of the [[East Penn Furnace]], which was destroyed by floods. John Balliet rebuilt, leased, and successfully ran the furnace for many years. In 1872 he moved to Bowmansville, where he married Amanda Rehrig. <ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 556.</ref> <br />
<br />
==Business==<br />
John Balliet was the owner of Balliet's charcoal furnace in Ashfield (Brenckman 1913, p.370), also known as the [[East Penn Furnace]].<br />
<br />
[[East Penn Forge]]<br />
<br />
[[Lehigh Furnace]]<br />
<br />
John Balliet owned extensive real estate, as well as built and refurbished buildings<ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 556.</ref>. He also owned the first store in Bowmanstown and was the owner of the Bowmanstown Hotel (Brenckman 1913, p.370). Much of this land was used for [[charcoal production]] for use as fuel in the two iron furnaces and the forge. <br />
<br />
John Balliet was also the director of Slatington Bank, and a shareholder of the Lehigh furnace in Allentown and Coplay.<ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 556.</ref> <br />
<br />
John Balliet's lands, totaling more than 800 acres were sold at an Orphans' Court Sale on Dec. 20, 1890 [http://www.newspapers.com/image/75681105/"(Carbon Advocate December 13, 1890)"]<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<references /><br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
*Mathews, Alfred, and Austin N Hungerford. 1884. History of the Counties of Lehigh and Carbon, in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. Philadelphia: Everts & Richards.<br />
*Brenckman, Frederick Charles. 1913. History of Carbon County, Pennsylvania: Also Containing a Separate Account of the Several Boroughs and Townships in the County, with Biographical Sketches. Harrisburg, Pa: J. J. Nungesser.<br />
*The Carbon Advocate. 1890. “Orphans’ Court Sale of Very Valuable Real Estate!- John Balliet,” December 13, 1890.<br />
*Reading Times. 1878. “What Constitutes a Conveyance of Land,” March 12, 1878.<br />
*Weekly Notes of Cases Argued and Determined in the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania, The County Courts of Philadelphia, and the United States District Courts for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania by Members of the Bar. 1880. Vol. VIII. Philadelphia, Pa.: Kay and Brother. [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZQkVAAAAYAAJ&lpg=PA387&ots=L4w9yQ0RpA&dq=john%20Balliet%20Elizabeth%20Dankel&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q=john%20Balliet%20Elizabeth%20Dankel&f=false.]<br />
*"United States Census, 1860," database with images, FamilySearch (https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/3:1:33SQ-GBSX-9PN3?cc=1473181&wc=7QTM-9KJ%3A1589434177%2C1589435020%2C1589422406 : 24 March 2017), Pennsylvania > Lehigh > Washington Township > image 59 of 61; from "1860 U.S. Federal Census - Population," database, Fold3.com (http://www.fold3.com : n.d.); citing NARA microfilm publication M653 (Washington, D.C.: National Archives and Records Administration, n.d.).<br />
*"United States Census, 1870," database with images, FamilySearch (https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/3:1:S3HY-6LWS-YDY?cc=1438024&wc=9227-RMZ%3A518666601%2C520079001%2C520081501 : 22 May 2014), Pennsylvania > Lehigh > Slatington > image 32 of 40; citing NARA microfilm publication M593 (Washington, D.C.: National Archives and Records Administration, n.d.).<br />
*"United States Census, 1880," database with images, FamilySearch (https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/3:1:33S7-9YBH-GD7?cc=1417683&wc=QZ27-THY%3A1589394781%2C1589413376%2C1589413679%2C1589395442 : 24 December 2015), Pennsylvania > Lehigh > Slatington > ED 188 > image 31 of 33; citing NARA microfilm publication T9 (Washington, D.C.: National Archives and Records Administration, n.d.).</div>Dmgriederhttps://wiki.ironallentownpa.org/index.php?title=John_Balliet_(1819-1886)&diff=187John Balliet (1819-1886)2018-10-01T17:18:58Z<p>Dmgrieder: </p>
<hr />
<div>==Family==<br />
<br />
John Balliet was born on November 13, 1819 in Ballietsville, North Whitehall township. Pennsylvania<ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 556.</ref> to [[Stephen Balliet (1781-1854)]] and [[Susan Iherie]]. His grandparents were Stephen Balliet and [[Magdalena Burkhalter Balliet]] <ref>Brenckman 1913, p. 370.</ref>.<ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 556.</ref> John Balliet married Amanda Rehrig (a.k.a. Rahrig or Rohrig; 1838-1907). Brenckman indicates that they had eleven children <ref>Brenckman 1913, p. 370.</ref> However, it is clear that four of those children were with Elizabeth Dankel. He may have had seven children with Amanda, including [[Isabella Balliet]] (1854-1888; Possibly the same as Martha Balliet Neyer), [[Alice Balliet]] (1859-1879), [[Lewis Balliet]] (1863-?),[[Emma Balliet Semmel]] (1864-1934), [[John William Balliet]] (1869-1934), and [[Harry Balliet]] (1878-1949) <ref>Brenckman 1913, p. 370.</ref>.<br />
<br />
From 1856- 1878, John Balliet lived with [[Elizabeth Dankel]] (1839-?) as his wife (who was 15-16 at first), though they were not married. During this time, they had four children, including Susan Balliet (1853–1888), Steven John Balliet (1860–1919), Mary J. Balliet (1863–1923), and Minerva Balliet (1870–1951). After residing in East Penn until May, 1866, they moved to Slatington, where they purchased land and built them a house. In 1874, Balliet left Dankel and brought suit against her to force her out of the Slatington house. Although the local judge agreed with Balliet, the case went to the Supreme Court, who ruled that Balliet legally possessed the land. (Reading Times, March 12, 1878 [http://www.newspapers.com/image/46391696]; Weekly Notes of Cases 1880, 387-388 [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZQkVAAAAYAAJ&lpg=PA387&ots=L4w9yQ0RpA&dq=john%20Balliet%20Elizabeth%20Dankel&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q=john%20Balliet%20Elizabeth%20Dankel&f=false.]). Census records indicate that Elizabeth resided with John in 1860 [https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/3:1:33SQ-GBSX-9PN3?cc=1473181&wc=7QTM-9KJ%3A1589434177%2C1589435020%2C1589422406], but not in 1870 [https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/3:1:S3HY-6LWS-YDY?cc=1438024&wc=9227-RMZ%3A518666601%2C520079001%2C520081501] or in 1880 [https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/3:1:33S7-9YBH-GD7?cc=1417683&wc=QZ27-THY%3A1589394781%2C1589413376%2C1589413679%2C1589395442]. In the 1880 census [https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/3:1:33S7-9YBH-GD7?cc=1417683&wc=QZ27-THY%3A1589394781%2C1589413376%2C1589413679%2C1589395442], Elizabeth is listed as "keeping house" in the house of John Rowine in Slatington. <br />
<br />
It appears that both Amanda and Elizabeth were 15-16 when they had their first children with John and they had them at approximately the same time. John appears to have had two separate families. <br />
<br />
John Balliet died on January 5, 1886.<br />
<br />
==Early Life==<br />
"After limited advantages of education,"<ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 556.</ref> John Balliet worked at the Lehigh Charcoal furnace to "learn the ropes" after finishing some limited schooling. <ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 555.</ref> He later became the co-owner (with his brothers Paul and Aaron) and superintendent of said property. <ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 555.</ref><br />
<br />
==Places of Residence and Work==<br />
After moving away from his hometown, John Balliet moved East Penn Township to become the superintendent of the East Penn Charcoal Furnace, which was destroyed by floods. John Balliet rebuilt, leased, and successfully ran the furnace for many years. In 1872 he moved to Bowmansville, where he married Amanda Rehrig. <ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 556.</ref> <br />
<br />
==Business==<br />
John Balliet was the owner of Balliet's charcoal furnace in Ashfield (Brenckman 1913, p.370), also known as the [[East Penn Furnace]].<br />
<br />
[[East Penn Forge]]<br />
<br />
[[Lehigh Furnace]]<br />
<br />
John Balliet owned extensive real estate, as well as built and refurbished buildings<ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 556.</ref>. He also owned the first store in Bowmanstown and was the owner of the Bowmanstown Hotel (Brenckman 1913, p.370). Much of this land was used for [[charcoal production]] for use as fuel in the two iron furnaces and the forge. <br />
<br />
John Balliet was also the director of Slatington Bank, and a shareholder of the Lehigh furnace in Allentown and Coplay.<ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 556.</ref> <br />
<br />
John Balliet's lands, totaling more than 800 acres were sold at an Orphans' Court Sale on Dec. 20, 1890 [http://www.newspapers.com/image/75681105/"(Carbon Advocate December 13, 1890)"]<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<references /><br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
*Mathews, Alfred, and Austin N Hungerford. 1884. History of the Counties of Lehigh and Carbon, in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. Philadelphia: Everts & Richards.<br />
*Brenckman, Frederick Charles. 1913. History of Carbon County, Pennsylvania: Also Containing a Separate Account of the Several Boroughs and Townships in the County, with Biographical Sketches. Harrisburg, Pa: J. J. Nungesser.<br />
*The Carbon Advocate. 1890. “Orphans’ Court Sale of Very Valuable Real Estate!- John Balliet,” December 13, 1890.<br />
*Reading Times. 1878. “What Constitutes a Conveyance of Land,” March 12, 1878.<br />
*Weekly Notes of Cases Argued and Determined in the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania, The County Courts of Philadelphia, and the United States District Courts for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania by Members of the Bar. 1880. Vol. VIII. Philadelphia, Pa.: Kay and Brother. [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZQkVAAAAYAAJ&lpg=PA387&ots=L4w9yQ0RpA&dq=john%20Balliet%20Elizabeth%20Dankel&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q=john%20Balliet%20Elizabeth%20Dankel&f=false.]<br />
*"United States Census, 1860," database with images, FamilySearch (https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/3:1:33SQ-GBSX-9PN3?cc=1473181&wc=7QTM-9KJ%3A1589434177%2C1589435020%2C1589422406 : 24 March 2017), Pennsylvania > Lehigh > Washington Township > image 59 of 61; from "1860 U.S. Federal Census - Population," database, Fold3.com (http://www.fold3.com : n.d.); citing NARA microfilm publication M653 (Washington, D.C.: National Archives and Records Administration, n.d.).<br />
*"United States Census, 1870," database with images, FamilySearch (https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/3:1:S3HY-6LWS-YDY?cc=1438024&wc=9227-RMZ%3A518666601%2C520079001%2C520081501 : 22 May 2014), Pennsylvania > Lehigh > Slatington > image 32 of 40; citing NARA microfilm publication M593 (Washington, D.C.: National Archives and Records Administration, n.d.).<br />
*"United States Census, 1880," database with images, FamilySearch (https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/3:1:33S7-9YBH-GD7?cc=1417683&wc=QZ27-THY%3A1589394781%2C1589413376%2C1589413679%2C1589395442 : 24 December 2015), Pennsylvania > Lehigh > Slatington > ED 188 > image 31 of 33; citing NARA microfilm publication T9 (Washington, D.C.: National Archives and Records Administration, n.d.).</div>Dmgriederhttps://wiki.ironallentownpa.org/index.php?title=John_Balliet_(1819-1886)&diff=181John Balliet (1819-1886)2018-10-01T16:53:53Z<p>Dmgrieder: </p>
<hr />
<div>==Family==<br />
<br />
John Balliet was born on November 13, 1819 in Ballietsville, North Whitehall township. Pennsylvania<ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 556.</ref> to [[Stephen Balliet (1781-1854)]] and [[Susan Iherie]]. His grandparents were Stephen Balliet and [[Magdalena Burkhalter Balliet]] <ref>Brenckman 1913, p. 370.</ref>.<ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 556.</ref> John Balliet married Amanda Rehrig (a.k.a. Rahrig or Rohrig; 1838-1907). Brenckman indicates that they had eleven children <ref>Brenckman 1913, p. 370.</ref> However, it is clear that four of those children were with Elizabeth Dankel. He may have had seven children with Amanda, including [[Isabella Balliet]] (1854-1888; Possibly the same as Martha Balliet Neyer), [[Alice Balliet]] (1859-1879), [[Lewis Balliet]] (1863-?),[[Emma Balliet Semmel]] (1864-1934), [[John William Balliet]] (1869-1934), and [[Harry Balliet]] (1878-1949) <ref>Brenckman 1913, p. 370.</ref>.<br />
<br />
From 1856- 1878, John Balliet lived with [[Elizabeth Dankel]] (1839-?) as his wife (who was 15-16 at first), though they were not married. During this time, they had four children, including Susan Balliet (1853–1888), Steven John Balliet (1860–1919), Mary J. Balliet (1863–1923), and Minerva Balliet (1870–1951). After residing in East Penn until May, 1866, they moved to Slatington, where they purchased land and built them a house. In 1874, Balliet left Dankel and brought suit against her to force her out of the Slatington house. Although the local judge agreed with Balliet, the case went to the Supreme Court, who ruled that Balliet legally possessed the land. (Reading Times, March 12, 1878 [http://www.newspapers.com/image/46391696]; Weekly Notes of Cases 1880, 387-388 [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZQkVAAAAYAAJ&lpg=PA387&ots=L4w9yQ0RpA&dq=john%20Balliet%20Elizabeth%20Dankel&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q=john%20Balliet%20Elizabeth%20Dankel&f=false.]). Census records indicate that Elizabeth resided with John in 1860 [https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/3:1:33SQ-GBSX-9PN3?cc=1473181&wc=7QTM-9KJ%3A1589434177%2C1589435020%2C1589422406], but not in 1870 [https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/3:1:S3HY-6LWS-YDY?cc=1438024&wc=9227-RMZ%3A518666601%2C520079001%2C520081501] or in 1880 [https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/3:1:33S7-9YBH-GD7?cc=1417683&wc=QZ27-THY%3A1589394781%2C1589413376%2C1589413679%2C1589395442]. In the 1880 census [https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/3:1:33S7-9YBH-GD7?cc=1417683&wc=QZ27-THY%3A1589394781%2C1589413376%2C1589413679%2C1589395442], Elizabeth is listed as "keeping house" in the house of John Rowine in Slatington. <br />
<br />
It appears that both Amanda and Elizabeth were 15-16 when they had their first children with John and they had them at approximately the same time. John appears to have had two separate families. <br />
<br />
John Balliet died on January 5, 1886.<br />
<br />
==Early Life==<br />
John Balliet worked at the Lehigh Charcoal furnace to "learn the ropes" after finishing some limited schooling. <ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 555.</ref> He later became the co-owner (with his brothers Paul and Aaron) and superintendent of said property. <ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 556.</ref><br />
<br />
==Places of Residence and Work==<br />
After moving away from his hometown, John Balliet moved East Penn Township to become the superintendent of the East Penn Charcoal Furnace, which was destroyed by floods. John Balliet rebuilt, leased, and successfully ran the furnace for many years. In 1872 he moved to Bowmansville, where he married Amanda Rehrig. <ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 556.</ref> <br />
<br />
==Business==<br />
John Balliet was the owner of Balliet's charcoal furnace in Ashfield (Brenckman 1913, p.370), also known as the [[East Penn Furnace]].<br />
<br />
[[East Penn Forge]]<br />
<br />
[[Lehigh Furnace]]<br />
<br />
John Balliet owned extensive real estate, as well as built and refurbished buildings<ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 556.</ref>. He also owned the first store in Bowmanstown and was the owner of the Bowmanstown Hotel (Brenckman 1913, p.370). Much of this land was used for [[charcoal production]] for use as fuel in the two iron furnaces and the forge. <br />
<br />
John Balliet was also the director of Slatington Bank, and a shareholder of the Lehigh furnace in Allentown and Coplay.<ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 556.</ref> <br />
<br />
John Balliet's lands, totaling more than 800 acres were sold at an Orphans' Court Sale on Dec. 20, 1890 [http://www.newspapers.com/image/75681105/"(Carbon Advocate December 13, 1890)"]<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<references /><br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
*Mathews, Alfred, and Austin N Hungerford. 1884. History of the Counties of Lehigh and Carbon, in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. Philadelphia: Everts & Richards.<br />
*Brenckman, Frederick Charles. 1913. History of Carbon County, Pennsylvania: Also Containing a Separate Account of the Several Boroughs and Townships in the County, with Biographical Sketches. Harrisburg, Pa: J. J. Nungesser.<br />
*The Carbon Advocate. 1890. “Orphans’ Court Sale of Very Valuable Real Estate!- John Balliet,” December 13, 1890.<br />
*Reading Times. 1878. “What Constitutes a Conveyance of Land,” March 12, 1878.<br />
*Weekly Notes of Cases Argued and Determined in the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania, The County Courts of Philadelphia, and the United States District Courts for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania by Members of the Bar. 1880. Vol. VIII. Philadelphia, Pa.: Kay and Brother. [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZQkVAAAAYAAJ&lpg=PA387&ots=L4w9yQ0RpA&dq=john%20Balliet%20Elizabeth%20Dankel&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q=john%20Balliet%20Elizabeth%20Dankel&f=false.]<br />
*"United States Census, 1860," database with images, FamilySearch (https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/3:1:33SQ-GBSX-9PN3?cc=1473181&wc=7QTM-9KJ%3A1589434177%2C1589435020%2C1589422406 : 24 March 2017), Pennsylvania > Lehigh > Washington Township > image 59 of 61; from "1860 U.S. Federal Census - Population," database, Fold3.com (http://www.fold3.com : n.d.); citing NARA microfilm publication M653 (Washington, D.C.: National Archives and Records Administration, n.d.).<br />
*"United States Census, 1870," database with images, FamilySearch (https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/3:1:S3HY-6LWS-YDY?cc=1438024&wc=9227-RMZ%3A518666601%2C520079001%2C520081501 : 22 May 2014), Pennsylvania > Lehigh > Slatington > image 32 of 40; citing NARA microfilm publication M593 (Washington, D.C.: National Archives and Records Administration, n.d.).<br />
*"United States Census, 1880," database with images, FamilySearch (https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/3:1:33S7-9YBH-GD7?cc=1417683&wc=QZ27-THY%3A1589394781%2C1589413376%2C1589413679%2C1589395442 : 24 December 2015), Pennsylvania > Lehigh > Slatington > ED 188 > image 31 of 33; citing NARA microfilm publication T9 (Washington, D.C.: National Archives and Records Administration, n.d.).</div>Dmgriederhttps://wiki.ironallentownpa.org/index.php?title=Paul_Balliet_(1811-1886)&diff=180Paul Balliet (1811-1886)2018-10-01T16:45:02Z<p>Dmgrieder: </p>
<hr />
<div>==Life==<br />
Paul Balliet was born in Whitehall Township, Ballietsville on May 11, 1811, to Stephen and Magdalena Balliet. He was mostly homeschooled, later on studying in Easton, PA.<ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 538.</ref><br />
<br />
Paul married Sarah Moyer, from Whitehall. They had four children. He married Kate Emery later on May 20, 1878.<br />
<br />
Paul was a Republican and served as county commissioner, as well as was a member of the German Reformed Church of Unionville.<ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 538.</ref><br />
==Work==<br />
Paul Balliet worked on his father's farm, which he in later years bought for himself. He also managed a store in Heidelberg township, as well as managed a furnace that his father owned. Along with his brothers Aaron and John, he "embarked in mining enterprise" in North Whitehall, as well as was a stockholder at Coplay furnace, which was close to his home.<ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 538.</ref><br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<references /><br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
*Mathews, Alfred, and Austin N Hungerford. 1884. History of the Counties of Lehigh and Carbon, in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. Philadelphia: Everts & Richards.</div>Dmgriederhttps://wiki.ironallentownpa.org/index.php?title=John_Balliet_(1819-1886)&diff=179John Balliet (1819-1886)2018-10-01T16:38:30Z<p>Dmgrieder: </p>
<hr />
<div>==Family==<br />
<br />
John Balliet was born on November 13, 1819 in Ballietsville, North Whitehall township. Pennsylvania<ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 556.</ref> to [[Stephen Balliet (1781-1854)]] and [[Magdalena Burkhalter Balliet]] <ref>Brenckman 1913, p. 370.</ref>.<ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 556.</ref> John Balliet married Amanda Rehrig (a.k.a. Rahrig or Rohrig; 1838-1907). Brenckman indicates that they had eleven children <ref>Brenckman 1913, p. 370.</ref> However, it is clear that four of those children were with Elizabeth Dankel. He may have had seven children with Amanda, including [[Isabella Balliet]] (1854-1888; Possibly the same as Martha Balliet Neyer), [[Alice Balliet]] (1859-1879), [[Lewis Balliet]] (1863-?),[[Emma Balliet Semmel]] (1864-1934), [[John William Balliet]] (1869-1934), and [[Harry Balliet]] (1878-1949) <ref>Brenckman 1913, p. 370.</ref>.<br />
<br />
From 1856- 1878, John Balliet lived with [[Elizabeth Dankel]] (1839-?) as his wife (who was 15-16 at first), though they were not married. During this time, they had four children, including Susan Balliet (1853–1888), Steven John Balliet (1860–1919), Mary J. Balliet (1863–1923), and Minerva Balliet (1870–1951). After residing in East Penn until May, 1866, they moved to Slatington, where they purchased land and built them a house. In 1874, Balliet left Dankel and brought suit against her to force her out of the Slatington house. Although the local judge agreed with Balliet, the case went to the Supreme Court, who ruled that Balliet legally possessed the land. (Reading Times, March 12, 1878 [http://www.newspapers.com/image/46391696]; Weekly Notes of Cases 1880, 387-388 [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZQkVAAAAYAAJ&lpg=PA387&ots=L4w9yQ0RpA&dq=john%20Balliet%20Elizabeth%20Dankel&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q=john%20Balliet%20Elizabeth%20Dankel&f=false.]). Census records indicate that Elizabeth resided with John in 1860 [https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/3:1:33SQ-GBSX-9PN3?cc=1473181&wc=7QTM-9KJ%3A1589434177%2C1589435020%2C1589422406], but not in 1870 [https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/3:1:S3HY-6LWS-YDY?cc=1438024&wc=9227-RMZ%3A518666601%2C520079001%2C520081501] or in 1880 [https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/3:1:33S7-9YBH-GD7?cc=1417683&wc=QZ27-THY%3A1589394781%2C1589413376%2C1589413679%2C1589395442]. In the 1880 census [https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/3:1:33S7-9YBH-GD7?cc=1417683&wc=QZ27-THY%3A1589394781%2C1589413376%2C1589413679%2C1589395442], Elizabeth is listed as "keeping house" in the house of John Rowine in Slatington. <br />
<br />
It appears that both Amanda and Elizabeth were 15-16 when they had their first children with John and they had them at approximately the same time. John appears to have had two separate families. <br />
<br />
John Balliet died on January 5, 1886.<br />
<br />
==Early Life==<br />
John Balliet worked at the Lehigh Charcoal furnace to "learn the ropes" after finishing some limited schooling. <ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 555.</ref> He later became the co-owner (with his brothers Paul and Aaron) and superintendent of said property. <ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 556.</ref><br />
<br />
==Places of Residence and Work==<br />
After moving away from his hometown, John Balliet moved East Penn Township to become the superintendent of the East Penn Charcoal Furnace, which was destroyed by floods. John Balliet rebuilt, leased, and successfully ran the furnace for many years. In 1872 he moved to Bowmansville, where he married Amanda Rehrig. <ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 556.</ref> <br />
<br />
==Business==<br />
John Balliet was the owner of Balliet's charcoal furnace in Ashfield (Brenckman 1913, p.370), also known as the [[East Penn Furnace]].<br />
<br />
[[East Penn Forge]]<br />
<br />
[[Lehigh Furnace]]<br />
<br />
John Balliet owned extensive real estate, as well as built and refurbished buildings<ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 556.</ref>. He also owned the first store in Bowmanstown and was the owner of the Bowmanstown Hotel (Brenckman 1913, p.370). Much of this land was used for [[charcoal production]] for use as fuel in the two iron furnaces and the forge. <br />
<br />
John Balliet was also the director of Slatington Bank, and a shareholder of the Lehigh furnace in Allentown and Coplay.<ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 556.</ref> <br />
<br />
John Balliet's lands, totaling more than 800 acres were sold at an Orphans' Court Sale on Dec. 20, 1890 [http://www.newspapers.com/image/75681105/"(Carbon Advocate December 13, 1890)"]<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<references /><br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
*Mathews, Alfred, and Austin N Hungerford. 1884. History of the Counties of Lehigh and Carbon, in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. Philadelphia: Everts & Richards.<br />
*Brenckman, Frederick Charles. 1913. History of Carbon County, Pennsylvania: Also Containing a Separate Account of the Several Boroughs and Townships in the County, with Biographical Sketches. Harrisburg, Pa: J. J. Nungesser.<br />
*The Carbon Advocate. 1890. “Orphans’ Court Sale of Very Valuable Real Estate!- John Balliet,” December 13, 1890.<br />
*Reading Times. 1878. “What Constitutes a Conveyance of Land,” March 12, 1878.<br />
*Weekly Notes of Cases Argued and Determined in the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania, The County Courts of Philadelphia, and the United States District Courts for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania by Members of the Bar. 1880. Vol. VIII. Philadelphia, Pa.: Kay and Brother. [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZQkVAAAAYAAJ&lpg=PA387&ots=L4w9yQ0RpA&dq=john%20Balliet%20Elizabeth%20Dankel&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q=john%20Balliet%20Elizabeth%20Dankel&f=false.]<br />
*"United States Census, 1860," database with images, FamilySearch (https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/3:1:33SQ-GBSX-9PN3?cc=1473181&wc=7QTM-9KJ%3A1589434177%2C1589435020%2C1589422406 : 24 March 2017), Pennsylvania > Lehigh > Washington Township > image 59 of 61; from "1860 U.S. Federal Census - Population," database, Fold3.com (http://www.fold3.com : n.d.); citing NARA microfilm publication M653 (Washington, D.C.: National Archives and Records Administration, n.d.).<br />
*"United States Census, 1870," database with images, FamilySearch (https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/3:1:S3HY-6LWS-YDY?cc=1438024&wc=9227-RMZ%3A518666601%2C520079001%2C520081501 : 22 May 2014), Pennsylvania > Lehigh > Slatington > image 32 of 40; citing NARA microfilm publication M593 (Washington, D.C.: National Archives and Records Administration, n.d.).<br />
*"United States Census, 1880," database with images, FamilySearch (https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/3:1:33S7-9YBH-GD7?cc=1417683&wc=QZ27-THY%3A1589394781%2C1589413376%2C1589413679%2C1589395442 : 24 December 2015), Pennsylvania > Lehigh > Slatington > ED 188 > image 31 of 33; citing NARA microfilm publication T9 (Washington, D.C.: National Archives and Records Administration, n.d.).</div>Dmgriederhttps://wiki.ironallentownpa.org/index.php?title=John_Balliet_(1819-1886)&diff=178John Balliet (1819-1886)2018-10-01T16:37:07Z<p>Dmgrieder: </p>
<hr />
<div>==Family==<br />
<br />
John Balliet was born on November 13, 1819 in Ballietsville, North Whitehall township. Pennsylvania<ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 556.</ref> to [[Stephen Balliet (1781-1854)]] and [[Magdalena Burkhalter Balliet]] <ref>Brenckman 1913, p. 370.</ref>.<ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 556.</ref> John Balliet married Amanda Rehrig (a.k.a. Rahrig or Rohrig; 1838-1907). Brenckman indicates that they had eleven children <ref>Brenckman 1913, p. 370.</ref> However, it is clear that four of those children were with Elizabeth Dankel. He may have had seven children with Amanda, including [[Isabella Balliet]] (1854-1888; Possibly the same as Martha Balliet Neyer), [[Alice Balliet]] (1859-1879), [[Lewis Balliet]] (1863-?),[[Emma Balliet Semmel]] (1864-1934), [[John William Balliet]] (1869-1934), and [[Harry Balliet]] (1878-1949) <ref>Brenckman 1913, p. 370.</ref>.<br />
<br />
From 1856- 1878, John Balliet lived with [[Elizabeth Dankel]] (1839-?) as his wife (who was 15-16 at first), though they were not married. During this time, they had four children, including Susan Balliet (1853–1888), Steven John Balliet (1860–1919), Mary J. Balliet (1863–1923), and Minerva Balliet (1870–1951). After residing in East Penn until May, 1866, they moved to Slatington, where they purchased land and built them a house. In 1874, Balliet left Dankel and brought suit against her to force her out of the Slatington house. Although the local judge agreed with Balliet, the case went to the Supreme Court, who ruled that Balliet legally possessed the land. (Reading Times, March 12, 1878 [http://www.newspapers.com/image/46391696]; Weekly Notes of Cases 1880, 387-388 [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZQkVAAAAYAAJ&lpg=PA387&ots=L4w9yQ0RpA&dq=john%20Balliet%20Elizabeth%20Dankel&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q=john%20Balliet%20Elizabeth%20Dankel&f=false.]). Census records indicate that Elizabeth resided with John in 1860 [https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/3:1:33SQ-GBSX-9PN3?cc=1473181&wc=7QTM-9KJ%3A1589434177%2C1589435020%2C1589422406], but not in 1870 [https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/3:1:S3HY-6LWS-YDY?cc=1438024&wc=9227-RMZ%3A518666601%2C520079001%2C520081501] or in 1880 [https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/3:1:33S7-9YBH-GD7?cc=1417683&wc=QZ27-THY%3A1589394781%2C1589413376%2C1589413679%2C1589395442]. In the 1880 census [https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/3:1:33S7-9YBH-GD7?cc=1417683&wc=QZ27-THY%3A1589394781%2C1589413376%2C1589413679%2C1589395442], Elizabeth is listed as "keeping house" in the house of John Rowine in Slatington. <br />
<br />
It appears that both Amanda and Elizabeth were 15-16 when they had their first children with John and they had them at approximately the same time. John appears to have had two separate families. <br />
<br />
John Balliet died on January 5, 1886.<br />
<br />
==Early Life==<br />
John Balliet worked at the Lehigh Charcoal furnace to "learn the ropes" after finishing some limited schooling. <ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 555.</ref> He later became the co-owner (with his brothers Paul and Aaron) and superintendent of said property. <ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 556.</ref><br />
<br />
==Places of Residence and Work==<br />
After moving away from his hometown, John Balliet moved East Penn Township to become the superintendent of the East Penn Charcoal Furnace, which was destroyed by floods. John Balliet rebuilt, leased, and successfully ran the furnace for many years. In 1872 he moved to Bowmansville, where he married Amanda Rehrig. <ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 556.</ref> <br />
<br />
==Business==<br />
John Balliet was the owner of Balliet's charcoal furnace in Ashfield (Brenckman 1913, p.370), also known as the [[East Penn Furnace]].<br />
<br />
[[East Penn Forge]]<br />
<br />
[[Lehigh Furnace]]<br />
<br />
John Balliet owned extensive real estate, as well as built and refurbished buildings<ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 556.</ref>. He also owned the first store in Bowmanstown and was the owner of the Bowmanstown Hotel (Brenckman 1913, p.370). Much of this land was used for [[charcoal production]] for use as fuel in the two iron furnaces and the forge. <br />
<br />
John Balliet was also the director of Slatington Bank, and a shareholder of the Lehigh of the Lehigh furnace in Allentown and Coplay.<ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 556.</ref> <br />
<br />
John Balliet's lands, totaling more than 800 acres were sold at an Orphans' Court Sale on Dec. 20, 1890 [http://www.newspapers.com/image/75681105/"(Carbon Advocate December 13, 1890)"]<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<references /><br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
*Mathews, Alfred, and Austin N Hungerford. 1884. History of the Counties of Lehigh and Carbon, in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. Philadelphia: Everts & Richards.<br />
*Brenckman, Frederick Charles. 1913. History of Carbon County, Pennsylvania: Also Containing a Separate Account of the Several Boroughs and Townships in the County, with Biographical Sketches. Harrisburg, Pa: J. J. Nungesser.<br />
*The Carbon Advocate. 1890. “Orphans’ Court Sale of Very Valuable Real Estate!- John Balliet,” December 13, 1890.<br />
*Reading Times. 1878. “What Constitutes a Conveyance of Land,” March 12, 1878.<br />
*Weekly Notes of Cases Argued and Determined in the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania, The County Courts of Philadelphia, and the United States District Courts for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania by Members of the Bar. 1880. Vol. VIII. Philadelphia, Pa.: Kay and Brother. [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZQkVAAAAYAAJ&lpg=PA387&ots=L4w9yQ0RpA&dq=john%20Balliet%20Elizabeth%20Dankel&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q=john%20Balliet%20Elizabeth%20Dankel&f=false.]<br />
*"United States Census, 1860," database with images, FamilySearch (https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/3:1:33SQ-GBSX-9PN3?cc=1473181&wc=7QTM-9KJ%3A1589434177%2C1589435020%2C1589422406 : 24 March 2017), Pennsylvania > Lehigh > Washington Township > image 59 of 61; from "1860 U.S. Federal Census - Population," database, Fold3.com (http://www.fold3.com : n.d.); citing NARA microfilm publication M653 (Washington, D.C.: National Archives and Records Administration, n.d.).<br />
*"United States Census, 1870," database with images, FamilySearch (https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/3:1:S3HY-6LWS-YDY?cc=1438024&wc=9227-RMZ%3A518666601%2C520079001%2C520081501 : 22 May 2014), Pennsylvania > Lehigh > Slatington > image 32 of 40; citing NARA microfilm publication M593 (Washington, D.C.: National Archives and Records Administration, n.d.).<br />
*"United States Census, 1880," database with images, FamilySearch (https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/3:1:33S7-9YBH-GD7?cc=1417683&wc=QZ27-THY%3A1589394781%2C1589413376%2C1589413679%2C1589395442 : 24 December 2015), Pennsylvania > Lehigh > Slatington > ED 188 > image 31 of 33; citing NARA microfilm publication T9 (Washington, D.C.: National Archives and Records Administration, n.d.).</div>Dmgriederhttps://wiki.ironallentownpa.org/index.php?title=Paul_Balliet_(1811-1886)&diff=162Paul Balliet (1811-1886)2018-10-01T12:05:02Z<p>Dmgrieder: </p>
<hr />
<div>==Life==<br />
Paul Balliet was born in Whitehall Township, Ballietsville on May 11, 1811, to Stephen and Magdalena Balliet. He was mostly homeschooled, later on studying in Easton, PA.<ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 538.</ref><br />
<br />
Paul married Sarah Moyer, from Whitehall. They had four children. He married Kate Emery later on May 20, 1878.<br />
<br />
Paul was a Republican and served as county commissioner, as well as was a member of the German Reformed Church of Unionville.<ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 538.</ref><br />
==Work==<br />
Paul Balliet worked on his father's farm, which he in later years bought for himself. He also managed a store in Heidelberg township, as well as managed a furnace that his father owned. Along with his brothers Aaron and John, he "embarked in mining enterprise in North Whitehall, as well as was a stockholder at Coplay furnace, which was close to his home.<ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 538.</ref><br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<references /><br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
*Mathews, Alfred, and Austin N Hungerford. 1884. History of the Counties of Lehigh and Carbon, in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. Philadelphia: Everts & Richards.</div>Dmgriederhttps://wiki.ironallentownpa.org/index.php?title=Paul_Balliet_(1811-1886)&diff=161Paul Balliet (1811-1886)2018-10-01T12:02:13Z<p>Dmgrieder: Created page with "==Life== Paul Balliet was born in Whitehall Township, Ballietsville on May 11, 1811 to Stephen and Magdalena Balliet. He was mostly homeschooled, later on studying in Easton,..."</p>
<hr />
<div>==Life==<br />
Paul Balliet was born in Whitehall Township, Ballietsville on May 11, 1811 to Stephen and Magdalena Balliet. He was mostly homeschooled, later on studying in Easton, PA.<br />
<br />
Paul married Sarah Moyer, from Whitehall. They had four children. He married again on May 20, 1878, Kate Emery.<br />
<br />
Paul was a Republican and served as county commissioner, as well as was a member of the German Reformed Church of Unionville. <br />
<br />
==Work==<br />
Paul Balliet worked on his father's farm, which he in later years bought for himself. He also managed a store in Heidelberg township, as well as managed a furnace that his father owned. Along with his brothers Aaron and John, he "embarked in mining enterprise in North Whitehall, as well as was a stockholder at Coplay furnace, which was close to his home. <br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<references /><br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
*Mathews, Alfred, and Austin N Hungerford. 1884. History of the Counties of Lehigh and Carbon, in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. Philadelphia: Everts & Richards.</div>Dmgriederhttps://wiki.ironallentownpa.org/index.php?title=Iron_production&diff=142Iron production2018-09-26T12:07:49Z<p>Dmgrieder: </p>
<hr />
<div>Iron production converts iron ore into pig iron through a process known as [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smelting smelting] at a furnace. Early in the history of iron production in the US, most furnaces used charcoal as fuel, so [[charcoal production]] and iron production were often closely linked. Ironworks are some of the first and most enduring examples of industry in the United States, and remnants of them survive particularly well in rural parts of the country. <ref>McVarish, D.C. 2008, p. 259.</ref> <br />
<br />
==History==<br />
In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, small-scale metalworking operations produced everyday objects like many forms of kitchenware, toys, building materials, and tools. <ref>McVarish, D.C. 2008, p. 259.</ref> Iron plantations were rural communities that often included forges, housing for workers, woodlands for charcoal production, and a sawmill <ref>McVarish, D.C. 2008, p. 259.</ref>. Bloomeries were were early centers of liited iron production. In a bloomery, the iron oxides in ore were reduced to metal and metal was separated from gangue in the ore. The fire created liquid slag and burning charcoal produced carbon dioxide reduced the oxide to metallic iron. Blast furnaces were also used for larger-scale iron production. These furnaces could be 25 to 30 feet high and had hollow centers into which was placed ore, fuel, and flux. Bellows were powered by a water wheel and melted iron and liquid slag accumulated in the bottom of the furnace. <ref>McVarish, D.C. 2008, p. 260.</ref> By the nineteenth century, blast furnaces were the most common. <ref>McVarish, D.C. 2008, p. 266.</ref><br />
<br />
==Iron Communities==<br />
Self-sufficient communities, called iron plantations, were built around these furnaces. Many workers were needed to run an iron plantation, including colliers, miners, woodcutters, molders, founders, patternmakers and their helpers. Hopewell Furnace, in Pennsylvania, employed roughly 200-250 people in the nineteenth century. Workers at iron plantations would often bring their families along with them, so the community at Hopewell Furnace would have consisted of about 600 people. <ref>McVarish, D.C. 2008, p. 259.</ref> The lands of iron plantations would include housing, gristmills and sawmills, farming land, and vast amounts of woodland, as well as barns, company stores, springhouses, blacksmiths, schools, churches, carpenter's shops, forges, casting houses, charcoal storage, and many other buildings. <ref>McVarish, D.C. 2008, p. 259.</ref><br />
<br />
==Fuel==<br />
Prior to the 1830s, every furnace in the US burned charcoal as fuel. Charcoal was used because it could be produced in large quantities, it burns hotter than wood, and it is almost pure carbon, so it reduces impurities in iron produced. <ref>McVarish, D.C. 2008, p. 260.</ref> To make charcoal, a variety of methods were used including hearths and kilns. Hearths were generally used in the pre-Civil War period and involved burning wood in earth-covered mounds. Kilns were made of brick and were more efficient. They also created more durable charcoal than hearths, which yielded more brittle charcoal. <ref>McVarish, D.C. 2008, p. 262.</ref> Around the 1860s, coal and coke began to replace charcoal in some areas, but overall iron production increased so much that the use of charcoal still continued to rise up to 1890, and the last charcoal-powered furnace in the US was in blast until 1945. <ref>Straka, T.J. 2014, p. 104.</ref><br />
<br />
==Operation==<br />
Efficiency was known to be inconsistent between furnaces in different places and at different times. Factors affecting this include differences in furnace construction and operation, as well as varying compositions of iron ore and qualities of charcoal used. <ref>Straka, T.J. 2014, p. 105.</ref> [[Ironworks]] had to be near water and sources of raw materials such as charcoal, <br />
limestone, and iron ore. <ref>McVarish, D.C. 2008, p. 259.</ref> Colonial ironworks used a variety of techniques to produce iron. <br />
<br />
===Bloomery===<br />
A bloomery was a small operation that heated iron ore to refine and shape it, producing wrought iron. Bloomeries needed simple equipment like a hearth, a bellows, and a tool for manipulating the iron. Bloomeries were common in colonial America, and operated between the seventeenth and twentieth centuries. Disadvantages of bloomeries include limited production, wasted heat, and an inability to completely separate the iron from slag.<ref>McVarish, D.C. 2008, p. 260.</ref><br />
<br />
===Blast Furnace===<br />
Blast furnaces addressed many of the disadvantages of bloomeries. They could be run continuously for months at at time and conserved heat, and they could produce much more iron. Blast furnaces were vertical, hollow structures, the top of which would be loaded with ore, fuel, and flux, while the bottom had air vents and a hole for the molten iron to run out. Blast furnaces tended to be 25-30 feet high at first, and eventually grew to 32-40 feet high in the nineteenth century. They had very thick stone walls, with fire-resistant interior lining. A layer between the lining and outer stones, usually made of clay or smaller stones, provided better insulation and allowed the inner walls to expand slightly when heated. Bellows, which pumped air into the furnace to feed the flames, were often powered by waterwheels, equal to about 20 horsepower. By adjusting ventilation, the temperature inside blast furnaces could be controlled to a degree. Because blast furnaces were loaded from the top, they were often located along hillsides. When the molten iron was ready to be collected, or tapped, smaller hole at the top was opened to allow the liquid slag, which sat on top of the iron because it was lighter, to be drawn away. After the slag was collected, the main plug was pulled, and the molten iron ran into sand molds. The iron produced in blast furnaces is called pig iron because the final product resembles piglets suckling on their mother. After the iron ran into the molds and was cooled, the "pigs" were broken off the "sows." These smaller pieces were more valuable than the metal in the runners which would need to be remelted. <ref>McVarish, D.C. 2008, p. 260-265.</ref><br />
<br />
===Finery===<br />
Finery converted pig iron to wrought iron, and was introduced to North America in the seventeenth century. Some types of finery required the use of charcoal because coal introduced too many impurities to the iron. There were at least four types of finery used in the United States. <br />
<br />
====Walloon Process====<br />
The Walloon Process was the original fining technique. The Walloon Process involved pushing a pig of iron into a hearth full of charcoal at a downward angle to melt it, working it into a mass called a loup, and hammering it to expel slag. The Walloon Process required a lot of air to heat the flames and the quality of wrought iron produced was heavily dependent on the skill of the workers making it. <ref>McVarish, D.C. 2008, p. 268.</ref> <br />
<br />
====Lancashire (Charcoal Hearth) Process====<br />
Lancashire Process involved moving the pig iron through the hottest part of a flame to burn off impurities and allowing the melted iron to accumulate at the bottom. Workers would then lift the iron, cut into it, and force slag in to oxidize what impurities remained. The iron was then broken up, remelted, and formed into a loup via hammering. The Lancashire Process reused heat from the flames to preheat air being pumped in by the bellows, making it more heat-efficient than the Walloon Process. <ref>McVarish, D.C. 2008, p. 268-269.</ref> <br />
<br />
===Puddling===<br />
Puddling was a larger scale way to produce wrought iron than a finery that was able to use mineral coals instead of charcoal. To prevent impurities from the coal from contaminating the iron, puddling placed the coal in an adjacent chamber to the iron, where most of the heat reached the iron by reflecting off the ceiling. This is where the name "puddling" comes from. Puddlers could handle three times as much iron as a finer: 600 pounds at a time. Workers would push any solidifying clumps of iron under the surface of the molten mix so they wouldn't oxidize. After most of the impurities had oxidized, a worker would split the iron into three lumps, which would be pressed by a machine called a squeezer to press out the remaining liquid slag. <ref>McVarish, D.C. 2008, p. 270.</ref> <br />
<br />
===Forging===<br />
Forging produced wrought iron using blooms and rods. Forging is effectively hammering. Large hammers between 50-400 pounds could be used; lighter hammers typically produced smaller things. Forging hammers were automated by waterwheel or steam power, and could strike up to 250 times per minute. <ref>McVarish, D.C. 2008, p. 271.</ref> <br />
<br />
==The Furnace==<br />
The furnace was about 32-40 feet tall, with the upper portion in a conical shape. The walls had an inner and oughter layer, the outer was usually made of granite or slate, while the inner was usually made of sandstone or firebrick because of their durability to high temperatures. Between the two walls was an eight-inch space filled with stone chips or broken cinderblocks. This space allowed the inner wall to expand and contract comfortably without bursting the outer wall. The area where workers would empty wheelbarrows full of iron ore was called the trunnel head or throat, and the opening above the hearth of the shaft below the trunnel head was called the bosh, which supported the furnace burden while funneling the molten slag. <ref>McVarish, D.C. 2008, p. 266.</ref> The taper of the shaft, bosh and crucible was entirely dependent on the type of ore smelted, charcoal quality, and what iron was desired as the finished product. In the United States a straight, uniform 40-50 foot stack was needed as hydrates and oxides of iron were smelted. Heat-exchanges or hot blast stoves were installed in the 19th century to increase efficiency. By the early 20th century, the iron furnaces were forced to change due to the moving times, they grew to be about 80 feet tall, the shape and proportion of the hearth and bosh and the addition of a belllhopper to the trunnel head allowed for the use of new materials. <ref>McVarish, D.C. 2008, p. 267.</ref> <br />
<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<references /><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
* Straka, T. J. (2014). Historic Charcoal Production in the US and Forest Depletion: Development of<br />
Production Parameters. Advances in Historical Studies, 3, 104-114. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ahs.2014.32010<br />
<br />
*McVarish, Douglas C. 2008. American Industrial Archaeology: A Field Guide. Walnut Creek, Calif.: Left Coast Press, Inc.</div>Dmgriederhttps://wiki.ironallentownpa.org/index.php?title=Kilns&diff=141Kilns2018-09-26T11:39:15Z<p>Dmgrieder: Created page with "==Kiln Sites== Kiln remains vary greatly. Smaller remains are usually those of farm kilns, which can be found at the base of hills with roads nearby, while larger remains orie..."</p>
<hr />
<div>==Kiln Sites==<br />
Kiln remains vary greatly. Smaller remains are usually those of farm kilns, which can be found at the base of hills with roads nearby, while larger remains oriented with a square stone base and occasional steel shells surrounding the base are commercial kilns, and usually placed near railroads. Commercial kiln locations can be found on historical maps from the nineteenth and early twentieth century. <ref>McVarish, D.C. 2008, p. 265.</ref> <br />
<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<references /><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
*McVarish, Douglas C. 2008. American Industrial Archaeology: A Field Guide. Walnut Creek, Calif.: Left Coast Press, Inc.</div>Dmgriederhttps://wiki.ironallentownpa.org/index.php?title=Pit_or_kiln.&diff=140Pit or kiln.2018-09-26T11:27:54Z<p>Dmgrieder: </p>
<hr />
<div>The use of the charcoal kiln had several advantages over the pit. [[Kilns]] were more expensive to manufacture, yet saved money in the long run, 1.5 cents per bushel to be exact <ref>Straka, T.J. 2014, p. 110.</ref>. Kilns were also able to produce more yield than pits, and the charcoal that was made was cleaner and fresher as it wasn't in contact with the forest floor. Kilns were also conveniently able to be placed where they could be watched with more ease, as opposed to a pit, where colliers had to spend months in isolation. Kilns also reduced overall labor, as the covering was permanent, whereas the pit had to be covered manually each round. Transportation costs and damage to the charcoal also decreased with kiln use, which made it all the more popular. <ref>Straka, T.J. 2014, p. 110.</ref><br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<references /><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
* Straka, T. J. (2014). Historic Charcoal Production in the US and Forest Depletion: Development of<br />
Production Parameters. Advances in Historical Studies, 3, 104-114. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ahs.2014.32010</div>Dmgriederhttps://wiki.ironallentownpa.org/index.php?title=Pit_or_kiln.&diff=139Pit or kiln.2018-09-26T11:27:39Z<p>Dmgrieder: </p>
<hr />
<div>The use of the charcoal kiln had several advantages over the pit. [Kilns] were more expensive to manufacture, yet saved money in the long run, 1.5 cents per bushel to be exact <ref>Straka, T.J. 2014, p. 110.</ref>. Kilns were also able to produce more yield than pits, and the charcoal that was made was cleaner and fresher as it wasn't in contact with the forest floor. Kilns were also conveniently able to be placed where they could be watched with more ease, as opposed to a pit, where colliers had to spend months in isolation. Kilns also reduced overall labor, as the covering was permanent, whereas the pit had to be covered manually each round. Transportation costs and damage to the charcoal also decreased with kiln use, which made it all the more popular. <ref>Straka, T.J. 2014, p. 110.</ref><br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<references /><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
* Straka, T. J. (2014). Historic Charcoal Production in the US and Forest Depletion: Development of<br />
Production Parameters. Advances in Historical Studies, 3, 104-114. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ahs.2014.32010</div>Dmgriederhttps://wiki.ironallentownpa.org/index.php?title=Iron_production&diff=123Iron production2018-09-25T00:21:19Z<p>Dmgrieder: /* References */</p>
<hr />
<div>Iron production converts iron ore into pig iron through a process known as [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smelting smelting] at a furnace. Early in the history of iron production in the US, most furnaces used charcoal as fuel, so [[charcoal production]] and iron production were often closely linked.<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
<br />
==Fuel==<br />
Prior to the 1830s, every furnace in the US burned charcoal as fuel. Around the 1860s, coal and coke began to replace charcoal in some areas, but overall iron production increased so much that the use of charcoal still continued to rise up to 1890, and the last charcoal-powered furnace in the US was in blast until 1945. <ref>Straka, T.J. 2014, p. 104.</ref><br />
<br />
==Operation==<br />
Efficiency was known to be inconsistent between furnaces in different places and at different times. Factors affecting this include differences in furnace construction and operation, as well as varying compositions of iron ore and qualities of charcoal used. <ref>Straka, T.J. 2014, p. 105.</ref> [[Ironworks]] had to be near water and sources of raw materials such as charcoal, <br />
limestone, and iron ore. <ref>McVarish, D.C. 2008, p. 259.</ref> <br />
==Notes==<br />
<references /><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
* Straka, T. J. (2014). Historic Charcoal Production in the US and Forest Depletion: Development of<br />
Production Parameters. Advances in Historical Studies, 3, 104-114. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ahs.2014.32010<br />
<br />
*McVarish, Douglas C. 2008. American Industrial Archaeology: A Field Guide. Walnut Creek, Calif.: Left Coast Press, Inc.</div>Dmgriederhttps://wiki.ironallentownpa.org/index.php?title=Iron_production&diff=122Iron production2018-09-25T00:20:54Z<p>Dmgrieder: </p>
<hr />
<div>Iron production converts iron ore into pig iron through a process known as [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smelting smelting] at a furnace. Early in the history of iron production in the US, most furnaces used charcoal as fuel, so [[charcoal production]] and iron production were often closely linked.<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
<br />
==Fuel==<br />
Prior to the 1830s, every furnace in the US burned charcoal as fuel. Around the 1860s, coal and coke began to replace charcoal in some areas, but overall iron production increased so much that the use of charcoal still continued to rise up to 1890, and the last charcoal-powered furnace in the US was in blast until 1945. <ref>Straka, T.J. 2014, p. 104.</ref><br />
<br />
==Operation==<br />
Efficiency was known to be inconsistent between furnaces in different places and at different times. Factors affecting this include differences in furnace construction and operation, as well as varying compositions of iron ore and qualities of charcoal used. <ref>Straka, T.J. 2014, p. 105.</ref> [[Ironworks]] had to be near water and sources of raw materials such as charcoal, <br />
limestone, and iron ore. <ref>McVarish, D.C. 2008, p. 259.</ref> <br />
==Notes==<br />
<references /><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
* Straka, T. J. (2014). Historic Charcoal Production in the US and Forest Depletion: Development of<br />
Production Parameters. Advances in Historical Studies, 3, 104-114. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ahs.2014.32010<br />
<br />
McVarish, Douglas C. 2008. American Industrial Archaeology: A Field Guide. Walnut Creek, Calif.: Left Coast Press, Inc.</div>Dmgriederhttps://wiki.ironallentownpa.org/index.php?title=Iron_production&diff=119Iron production2018-09-25T00:17:52Z<p>Dmgrieder: </p>
<hr />
<div>Iron production converts iron ore into pig iron through a process known as [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smelting smelting] at a furnace. Early in the history of iron production in the US, most furnaces used charcoal as fuel, so [[charcoal production]] and iron production were often closely linked.<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
<br />
==Fuel==<br />
Prior to the 1830s, every furnace in the US burned charcoal as fuel. Around the 1860s, coal and coke began to replace charcoal in some areas, but overall iron production increased so much that the use of charcoal still continued to rise up to 1890, and the last charcoal-powered furnace in the US was in blast until 1945. <ref>Straka, T.J. 2014, p. 104.</ref><br />
<br />
==Operation==<br />
Efficiency was known to be inconsistent between furnaces in different places and at different times. Factors affecting this include differences in furnace construction and operation, as well as varying compositions of iron ore and qualities of charcoal used. <ref>Straka, T.J. 2014, p. 105.</ref> [[Ironworks]] had to be near water and sources of raw materials such as charcoal, <br />
limestone, and iron ore. <ref>McVarish, D.C, p. 259.</ref> <br />
==Notes==<br />
<references /><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
* Straka, T. J. (2014). Historic Charcoal Production in the US and Forest Depletion: Development of<br />
Production Parameters. Advances in Historical Studies, 3, 104-114. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ahs.2014.32010</div>Dmgriederhttps://wiki.ironallentownpa.org/index.php?title=Iron_production&diff=117Iron production2018-09-25T00:12:43Z<p>Dmgrieder: </p>
<hr />
<div>Iron production converts iron ore into pig iron through a process known as [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smelting smelting] at a furnace. Early in the history of iron production in the US, most furnaces used charcoal as fuel, so [[charcoal production]] and iron production were often closely linked.<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
<br />
==Fuel==<br />
Prior to the 1830s, every furnace in the US burned charcoal as fuel. Around the 1860s, coal and coke began to replace charcoal in some areas, but overall iron production increased so much that the use of charcoal still continued to rise up to 1890, and the last charcoal-powered furnace in the US was in blast until 1945. <ref>Straka, T.J. 2014, p. 104.</ref><br />
<br />
==Operation==<br />
Efficiency was known to be inconsistent between furnaces in different places and at different times. Factors affecting this include differences in furnace construction and operation, as well as varying compositions of iron ore and qualities of charcoal used. <ref>Straka, T.J. 2014, p. 105.</ref> [[Ironworks]] had to be near water and sources of raw materials such as charcoal, <br />
limestone, and iron ore. <ref>McVarish,D.C, p. 259.</ref> <br />
==Notes==<br />
<references /><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
* Straka, T. J. (2014). Historic Charcoal Production in the US and Forest Depletion: Development of<br />
Production Parameters. Advances in Historical Studies, 3, 104-114. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ahs.2014.32010</div>Dmgriederhttps://wiki.ironallentownpa.org/index.php?title=Collier_huts&diff=116Collier huts2018-09-12T16:25:36Z<p>Dmgrieder: /* Location */</p>
<hr />
<div>While producing charcoal, colliers stayed in temporary huts. <br />
<br />
==Construction==<br />
The huts were conical, with a base 8 feet across and 10 feet high. Three inch poles were used as the basic structure and the spaces between them were filled in with smaller poles. The basic structure was wood, with leaves and soil acting as insulation and filling in the gaps between posts. Additionally, huts had a small door, a hearth, and wooden cots. <ref>Kemper 1941, p. 8.</ref><br />
<br />
==Location==<br />
A collier would construct his hut in a location as central to the charcoal pits he was burning as possible, and layed-out the hut so that the door faced the pits. <ref>Kemper 1941, p. 8.</ref> <ref>Walker 1966, p. 242.</ref> Throughout the burning process, the charcoal hearths required constant tending throughout the day and night. If a collier let the fire consume his wood completely, he would be charged for its loss so proximity to one's hearths was very important. <ref>Walker 1966, p. 247.</ref><br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<references /><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
* Kemper, Jackson. 1941. American Charcoal Making in the Era of the Cold-Blast Furnace. History 14. Washignton, D.C.: U.S. Department of the Interior; National Park Service.<br />
* Walker, Joseph E. 1966. Hopewell Village; a Social and Economic History of an Iron-Making Community. Philadelphia,: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press.</div>Dmgriederhttps://wiki.ironallentownpa.org/index.php?title=Charcoal_production&diff=113Charcoal production2018-09-12T12:07:02Z<p>Dmgrieder: /* Collier Life */</p>
<hr />
<div>In nineteenth century Pennsylvania, charcoal was produced primarily to fuel [[iron production]]. Charcoal is the result of the destructive distillation of wood to yield a fuel that is primarily carbon. In the 19th century, when iron production was at its peak, the demand for charcoal as fuel for furnaces had an impact on forests. As a result, the charcoal industry was one of the first to think about sustainability and forestry.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Types of Wood==<br />
While most types of wood can become charcoal, hard woods generally produced the best charcoal. Trees like oak, hickory, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chestnut chestnut], and elm were greatly preferred to softer woods, like gum and poplar. <ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 59.</ref><br />
However, heavier hardwood requires a longer burning so sometimes a mixture of hardwood and softwood was the most effective. The condition of wood was important to the quality of the charcoal output. Knots in the wood, decay, and moisture negatively impact carbonization. <br />
<br />
==Sustainability==<br />
The need for charcoal in the iron industry created a significant demand for wood and a great deal of trees were chopped down for its production. The average output of furnaces between 1750 and 1800 was 100 5o 400 tons of pig iron per year. This required 200 - 400 bushels of charcoal and 50 acres of trees to produce that amount. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 105.</ref> Even though the increased efficiency of furnaces decreased the necessary amount of charcoal, increased production required 150 acres of wood by 1850 and 1,400 acres by 1900. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 106.</ref><br />
<br />
==Making the Hearth==<br />
Charcoal hearths require a large flat area.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref> They are often placed on hillsides to facilitate dirt movement and are usually round. In the center of the hearth, a triangular chimney is made from stacked wood. In the chimney, a large stick called the Fagan pole is inserted. The Fagan pole is used to mark the center of the pit and can be also be removed to provide drought during the process.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref><br />
<br />
==Piling the Wood==<br />
After making the chimney and the pole, the collier leans pieces of hardwood around the chimney. Hardwood was the preferred type of wood to use in charcoal production because it was denser and therefore more conducive to the iron-making process.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 59.</ref><br />
<br />
==Covering the Wood==<br />
The wood in the hearth is first covered with a layer of leaves or straw. Then, that is covered with dirt. The leaves act as a barrier between the wood and the dirt, helping to ensure even charring of the wood.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref><br />
<br />
==Igniting the Wood==<br />
Charcoal hearths were likely lit at the top and burned downwards. <ref>Straka, 2014, pg. 107.</ref> To ignite the wood, kindling wood is put up to the top of the the chimney. Then, hot coals are dropped into the chimney and the opening is covered with a piece called the "bridgen." The bridgen is then covered with leaves and straw.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 2.</ref><br />
<br />
==Ending the Burn==<br />
The burn was ended before all the charcoal was finished burning because this helped Colliers maximize production.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 4.</ref><br />
<br />
==Removing the Charcoal==<br />
To remove the finished charcoal, colliers used a large rake with long times. The tines ensure that the pieces of charcoal are dragged through the dirt on their way out of the hearth. This makes sure that no fires flare up and destroy the charcoal.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 4.</ref><br />
<br />
==Sustainability==<br />
The need for charcoal in the iron industry created a significant demand for wood and a great deal of trees were chopped down for its production. The average output of furnaces between 1750 and 1800 was 100 5o 400 tons of pig iron per year. This required 200 - 400 bushels of charcoal and 50 acres of trees to produce that amount. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 105.</ref> Even though the increased efficiency of furnaces decreased the necessary amount of charcoal, increased production required 150 acres of wood by 1850 and 1,400 acres by 1900. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 106.</ref><br />
Since forests regenerated at different rates, this impacted sustainability. In the Western United States, woodlands took decades to regrow to maturity so woodlands could be depleted in a decade. On the other hand, Eastern furnaces were some of the first to manage forests to ensure a sustainable yield. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 111.</ref><br />
Several early proponents of sustainable forestry were involved in the making of charcoal, like Bernhard E. Fernow, the manager of the Lehigh Furnace from 1879 to 1883. He advocated for coppicing of wood and protection from fire and cattle grazing to speed up regrowth of forest used for charcoal.<br />
<br />
==Charcoal v. Coal==<br />
The transition to coal as the primary fuel for furnaces began around 1840, but in 1859 around three-quarters of furnaces in America (particularly in Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York) still primarily used charcoal. Charcoal remained a source of fuel in some places until 1945. <br />
<br />
Charcoal tended to produce a higher quality of iron than coal, partially because of its density. Iron made from charcoal had a "fine grain" compared to iron made by coal and maintained a better<br />
cutting edge. <ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 59.</ref><br />
<br />
==Collier Life==<br />
The public's general impression of Colliers was that they were dirty and uncivilized. Historically, the collier profession, was not one for the faint of heart, as great skill was required in order to successfully maintain multiple charcoal hearths at one time for months on end. <ref>Straka and Wayne 2010, p. 60</ref> Living alone, or occasionally with a son or apprentice, colliers couldn't afford to lose concentration or dedication for even one moment, as the slightest wayward breeze or hole in the charcoal hearth could cause irreparable damage. <ref>Fire the Pit, youtube</ref> This profession required almost constant twenty-four-hour surveillance of the hearths [https://www.nps.gov/media/video/view.htm?id=FB3FA03A-1DD8-B71C-071149ADB08DBD2E.] The most dangerous job of a collier was called"jumping the pit." This crucial job required a collier to climb up onto the hearth and pack down the dirt as best they could. If anything went awry, they risked falling into the smoldering charcoal fire. <ref>Straka and Wayne 2010, p. 60</ref> While making charcoal, colliers lived in [[huts]]. In the winter months, Colliers became wood-cutters in order to get a full-years wage, as the ideal season to make charcoal was during the warmer months so that the [[production of charcoal]] could continue when it grew warm. <ref>Kemper, 1941, p. 10.</ref><br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<references /><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
* "Agriculture andrRural economy – Charcoal → ." The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project. Ann Arbor: Michigan Publishing, University of Michigan Library, 2010. http://hdl.handle.net/2027/spo.did2222.0001.346 (accessed [fill in today's date in the form April 18, 2009 and remove square brackets]). Originally published as "Agriculture et économie rustique – Charbon de bois," Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, vol. 1 (plates) (Paris, 1762).<br />
<br />
* Jones, Claude A. 1976. “Making Charcoal at Jacobsburg.” In Slate Belt Bicentennial Heritage, edited by Marjorie May, Maryann Repsher, Robert R. Saltern, Gordon E. Wilson, and Albert M. Toth, 32–33. Heritage Committee of the Slate Belt Bicentennial Commission.<br />
<br />
* Straka, Thomas J., and Wayne C. Ramer. 2010. “History on the Road: Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site.” Forest History Today Spring/Fall: 58–62. https://foresthistory.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/2010_History-on-Road.pdf<br />
<br />
* Straka, Thomas J.. 2014. "Historic Charcoal Production in the US and Forest Depletion: Development of Production Parameters." Advances in Historical Studies: 104-114. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ahs.2014.32010<br />
<br />
* Wagner, Van. 2008. Fire the Pit- Charcoal Production in Pennsylvania. 4 vols. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RxW7g3IwD1k ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xVE_7hMLMZU ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=88FbebFElaY ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ghj2p9rrUmM.</div>Dmgriederhttps://wiki.ironallentownpa.org/index.php?title=Collier_huts&diff=112Collier huts2018-09-12T12:05:13Z<p>Dmgrieder: </p>
<hr />
<div>While producing charcoal, colliers stayed in temporary huts. <br />
<br />
==Construction==<br />
The huts were conical, with a base 8 feet across and 10 feet high. Three inch poles were used as the basic structure and the spaces between them were filled in with smaller poles. The basic structure was wood, with leaves and soil acting as insulation and filling in the gaps between posts. Additionally, huts had a small door, a hearth, and wooden cots. <ref>Kemper 1941, p. 8.</ref><br />
<br />
==Location==<br />
A collier would construct his hut in a location as central to the charcoal pits he was burning as possible, and layout the hut so that the door faced the pits. <ref>Kemper 1941, p. 8.</ref> <ref>Walker 1966, p. 242.</ref> Throughout the burning process, the charcoal hearths required constant tending throughout the day and night. If a collier let the fire consume his wood completely, he would be charged for its loss so proximity to one's hearths was very important. <ref>Walker 1966, p. 247.</ref><br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<references /><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
* Kemper, Jackson. 1941. American Charcoal Making in the Era of the Cold-Blast Furnace. History 14. Washignton, D.C.: U.S. Department of the Interior; National Park Service.<br />
* Walker, Joseph E. 1966. Hopewell Village; a Social and Economic History of an Iron-Making Community. Philadelphia,: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press.</div>Dmgriederhttps://wiki.ironallentownpa.org/index.php?title=Charcoal_production&diff=111Charcoal production2018-09-12T12:03:29Z<p>Dmgrieder: </p>
<hr />
<div>In nineteenth century Pennsylvania, charcoal was produced primarily to fuel [[iron production]]. Charcoal is the result of the destructive distillation of wood to yield a fuel that is primarily carbon. In the 19th century, when iron production was at its peak, the demand for charcoal as fuel for furnaces had an impact on forests. As a result, the charcoal industry was one of the first to think about sustainability and forestry.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Types of Wood==<br />
While most types of wood can become charcoal, hard woods generally produced the best charcoal. Trees like oak, hickory, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chestnut chestnut], and elm were greatly preferred to softer woods, like gum and poplar. <ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 59.</ref><br />
However, heavier hardwood requires a longer burning so sometimes a mixture of hardwood and softwood was the most effective. The condition of wood was important to the quality of the charcoal output. Knots in the wood, decay, and moisture negatively impact carbonization. <br />
<br />
==Sustainability==<br />
The need for charcoal in the iron industry created a significant demand for wood and a great deal of trees were chopped down for its production. The average output of furnaces between 1750 and 1800 was 100 5o 400 tons of pig iron per year. This required 200 - 400 bushels of charcoal and 50 acres of trees to produce that amount. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 105.</ref> Even though the increased efficiency of furnaces decreased the necessary amount of charcoal, increased production required 150 acres of wood by 1850 and 1,400 acres by 1900. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 106.</ref><br />
<br />
==Making the Hearth==<br />
Charcoal hearths require a large flat area.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref> They are often placed on hillsides to facilitate dirt movement and are usually round. In the center of the hearth, a triangular chimney is made from stacked wood. In the chimney, a large stick called the Fagan pole is inserted. The Fagan pole is used to mark the center of the pit and can be also be removed to provide drought during the process.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref><br />
<br />
==Piling the Wood==<br />
After making the chimney and the pole, the collier leans pieces of hardwood around the chimney. Hardwood was the preferred type of wood to use in charcoal production because it was denser and therefore more conducive to the iron-making process.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 59.</ref><br />
<br />
==Covering the Wood==<br />
The wood in the hearth is first covered with a layer of leaves or straw. Then, that is covered with dirt. The leaves act as a barrier between the wood and the dirt, helping to ensure even charring of the wood.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref><br />
<br />
==Igniting the Wood==<br />
Charcoal hearths were likely lit at the top and burned downwards. <ref>Straka, 2014, pg. 107.</ref> To ignite the wood, kindling wood is put up to the top of the the chimney. Then, hot coals are dropped into the chimney and the opening is covered with a piece called the "bridgen." The bridgen is then covered with leaves and straw.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 2.</ref><br />
<br />
==Ending the Burn==<br />
The burn was ended before all the charcoal was finished burning because this helped Colliers maximize production.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 4.</ref><br />
<br />
==Removing the Charcoal==<br />
To remove the finished charcoal, colliers used a large rake with long times. The tines ensure that the pieces of charcoal are dragged through the dirt on their way out of the hearth. This makes sure that no fires flare up and destroy the charcoal.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 4.</ref><br />
<br />
==Sustainability==<br />
The need for charcoal in the iron industry created a significant demand for wood and a great deal of trees were chopped down for its production. The average output of furnaces between 1750 and 1800 was 100 5o 400 tons of pig iron per year. This required 200 - 400 bushels of charcoal and 50 acres of trees to produce that amount. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 105.</ref> Even though the increased efficiency of furnaces decreased the necessary amount of charcoal, increased production required 150 acres of wood by 1850 and 1,400 acres by 1900. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 106.</ref><br />
Since forests regenerated at different rates, this impacted sustainability. In the Western United States, woodlands took decades to regrow to maturity so woodlands could be depleted in a decade. On the other hand, Eastern furnaces were some of the first to manage forests to ensure a sustainable yield. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 111.</ref><br />
Several early proponents of sustainable forestry were involved in the making of charcoal, like Bernhard E. Fernow, the manager of the Lehigh Furnace from 1879 to 1883. He advocated for coppicing of wood and protection from fire and cattle grazing to speed up regrowth of forest used for charcoal.<br />
<br />
==Charcoal v. Coal==<br />
The transition to coal as the primary fuel for furnaces began around 1840, but in 1859 around three-quarters of furnaces in America (particularly in Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York) still primarily used charcoal. Charcoal remained a source of fuel in some places until 1945. <br />
<br />
Charcoal tended to produce a higher quality of iron than coal, partially because of its density. Iron made from charcoal had a "fine grain" compared to iron made by coal and maintained a better<br />
cutting edge. <ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 59.</ref><br />
<br />
==Collier Life==<br />
The public's general impression of Colliers was that they were dirty and uncivilized. Historically, the collier profession, was not one for the faint of heart, as great skill was required in order to successfully maintain multiple charcoal hearths at one time for months on end. <ref>Straka and Wayne 2010, p. 60</ref> Living alone, or occasionally with a son or apprentice, colliers couldn't afford to lose concentration or dedication for even one moment, as the slightest wayward breeze or hole in the charcoal hearth could cause irreparable damage. <ref>Fire the Pit, youtube</ref> This profession required almost constant twenty-four-hour surveillance of the hearths [https://www.nps.gov/media/video/view.htm?id=FB3FA03A-1DD8-B71C-071149ADB08DBD2E.] The most dangerous job of a collier was called"jumping the pit." This crucial job required a collier to climb up onto the hearth and pack down the dirt as best they could. If anything went awry, they risked falling into the smoldering charcoal fire. <ref>Straka and Wayne 2010, p. 60</ref> While making charcoal, colliers lived in [[collier's huts]]. In the winter months, Colliers became wood-cutters in order to get a full-years wage, as the ideal season to make charcoal was during the warmer months so that the [[production of charcoal]] could continue when it grew warm. <ref>Kemper, 1941, p. 10.</ref><br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<references /><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
* "Agriculture andrRural economy – Charcoal → ." The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project. Ann Arbor: Michigan Publishing, University of Michigan Library, 2010. http://hdl.handle.net/2027/spo.did2222.0001.346 (accessed [fill in today's date in the form April 18, 2009 and remove square brackets]). Originally published as "Agriculture et économie rustique – Charbon de bois," Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, vol. 1 (plates) (Paris, 1762).<br />
<br />
* Jones, Claude A. 1976. “Making Charcoal at Jacobsburg.” In Slate Belt Bicentennial Heritage, edited by Marjorie May, Maryann Repsher, Robert R. Saltern, Gordon E. Wilson, and Albert M. Toth, 32–33. Heritage Committee of the Slate Belt Bicentennial Commission.<br />
<br />
* Straka, Thomas J., and Wayne C. Ramer. 2010. “History on the Road: Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site.” Forest History Today Spring/Fall: 58–62. https://foresthistory.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/2010_History-on-Road.pdf<br />
<br />
* Straka, Thomas J.. 2014. "Historic Charcoal Production in the US and Forest Depletion: Development of Production Parameters." Advances in Historical Studies: 104-114. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ahs.2014.32010<br />
<br />
* Wagner, Van. 2008. Fire the Pit- Charcoal Production in Pennsylvania. 4 vols. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RxW7g3IwD1k ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xVE_7hMLMZU ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=88FbebFElaY ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ghj2p9rrUmM.</div>Dmgriederhttps://wiki.ironallentownpa.org/index.php?title=Charcoal_production&diff=109Charcoal production2018-09-12T12:02:42Z<p>Dmgrieder: /* Collier Life */</p>
<hr />
<div>In nineteenth century Pennsylvania, charcoal was produced primarily to fuel [[iron production]]. Charcoal is the result of the destructive distillation of wood to yield a fuel that is primarily carbon. In the 19th century, when iron production was at its peak, the demand for charcoal as fuel for furnaces had an impact on forests. As a result, the charcoal industry was one of the first to think about sustainability and forestry.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Types of Wood==<br />
While most types of wood can become charcoal, hard woods generally produced the best charcoal. Trees like oak, hickory, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chestnut chestnut], and elm were greatly preferred to softer woods, like gum and poplar. <ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 59.</ref><br />
However, heavier hardwood requires a longer burning so sometimes a mixture of hardwood and softwood was the most effective. The condition of wood was important to the quality of the charcoal output. Knots in the wood, decay, and moisture negatively impact carbonization. <br />
<br />
==Sustainability==<br />
The need for charcoal in the iron industry created a significant demand for wood and a great deal of trees were chopped down for its production. The average output of furnaces between 1750 and 1800 was 100 5o 400 tons of pig iron per year. This required 200 - 400 bushels of charcoal and 50 acres of trees to produce that amount. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 105.</ref> Even though the increased efficiency of furnaces decreased the necessary amount of charcoal, increased production required 150 acres of wood by 1850 and 1,400 acres by 1900. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 106.</ref><br />
<br />
==Making the Hearth==<br />
Charcoal hearths require a large flat area.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref> They are often placed on hillsides to facilitate dirt movement and are usually round. In the center of the hearth, a triangular chimney is made from stacked wood. In the chimney, a large stick called the Fagan pole is inserted. The Fagan pole is used to mark the center of the pit and can be also be removed to provide drought during the process.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref><br />
<br />
==Piling the Wood==<br />
After making the chimney and the pole, the collier leans pieces of hardwood around the chimney. Hardwood was the preferred type of wood to use in charcoal production because it was denser and therefore more conducive to the iron-making process.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 59.</ref><br />
<br />
==Covering the Wood==<br />
The wood in the hearth is first covered with a layer of leaves or straw. Then, that is covered with dirt. The leaves act as a barrier between the wood and the dirt, helping to ensure even charring of the wood.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref><br />
<br />
==Igniting the Wood==<br />
Charcoal hearths were likely lit at the top and burned downwards. <ref>Straka, 2014, pg. 107.</ref> To ignite the wood, kindling wood is put up to the top of the the chimney. Then, hot coals are dropped into the chimney and the opening is covered with a piece called the "bridgen." The bridgen is then covered with leaves and straw.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 2.</ref><br />
<br />
==Ending the Burn==<br />
The burn was ended before all the charcoal was finished burning because this helped Colliers maximize production.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 4.</ref><br />
<br />
==Removing the Charcoal==<br />
To remove the finished charcoal, colliers used a large rake with long times. The tines ensure that the pieces of charcoal are dragged through the dirt on their way out of the hearth. This makes sure that no fires flare up and destroy the charcoal.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 4.</ref><br />
<br />
==Sustainability==<br />
The need for charcoal in the iron industry created a significant demand for wood and a great deal of trees were chopped down for its production. The average output of furnaces between 1750 and 1800 was 100 5o 400 tons of pig iron per year. This required 200 - 400 bushels of charcoal and 50 acres of trees to produce that amount. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 105.</ref> Even though the increased efficiency of furnaces decreased the necessary amount of charcoal, increased production required 150 acres of wood by 1850 and 1,400 acres by 1900. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 106.</ref><br />
Since forests regenerated at different rates, this impacted sustainability. In the Western United States, woodlands took decades to regrow to maturity so woodlands could be depleted in a decade. On the other hand, Eastern furnaces were some of the first to manage forests to ensure a sustainable yield. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 111.</ref><br />
Several early proponents of sustainable forestry were involved in the making of charcoal, like Bernhard E. Fernow, the manager of the Lehigh Furnace from 1879 to 1883. He advocated for coppicing of wood and protection from fire and cattle grazing to speed up regrowth of forest used for charcoal.<br />
<br />
==Charcoal v. Coal==<br />
The transition to coal as the primary fuel for furnaces began around 1840, but in 1859 around three-quarters of furnaces in America (particularly in Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York) still primarily used charcoal. Charcoal remained a source of fuel in some places until 1945. <br />
<br />
Charcoal tended to produce a higher quality of iron than coal, partially because of its density. Iron made from charcoal had a "fine grain" compared to iron made by coal and maintained a better<br />
cutting edge. <ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 59.</ref><br />
<br />
==Collier Life==<br />
The public's general impression of Colliers was that they were dirty and uncivilized. [[Historically]], the collier profession, was not one for the faint of heart, as great skill was required in order to successfully maintain multiple charcoal hearths at one time for months on end. <ref>Straka and Wayne 2010, p. 60</ref> Living alone, or occasionally with a son or apprentice, colliers couldn't afford to lose concentration or dedication for even one moment, as the slightest wayward breeze or hole in the charcoal hearth could cause irreparable damage. <ref>Fire the Pit, youtube</ref> This profession required almost constant twenty-four-hour surveillance of the hearths [https://www.nps.gov/media/video/view.htm?id=FB3FA03A-1DD8-B71C-071149ADB08DBD2E.] The most dangerous job of a collier was called"jumping the pit." This crucial job required a collier to climb up onto the hearth and pack down the dirt as best they could. If anything went awry, they risked falling into the smoldering charcoal fire. <ref>Straka and Wayne 2010, p. 60</ref> While making charcoal, colliers lived in [[collier's huts]]. In the winter months, Colliers became wood-cutters in order to get a full-years wage, as the ideal season to make charcoal was during the warmer months so that the [[production of charcoal]] could continue when it grew warm. <ref>Kemper, 1941, p. 10.</ref><br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<references /><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
* "Agriculture andrRural economy – Charcoal → ." The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project. Ann Arbor: Michigan Publishing, University of Michigan Library, 2010. http://hdl.handle.net/2027/spo.did2222.0001.346 (accessed [fill in today's date in the form April 18, 2009 and remove square brackets]). Originally published as "Agriculture et économie rustique – Charbon de bois," Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, vol. 1 (plates) (Paris, 1762).<br />
<br />
* Jones, Claude A. 1976. “Making Charcoal at Jacobsburg.” In Slate Belt Bicentennial Heritage, edited by Marjorie May, Maryann Repsher, Robert R. Saltern, Gordon E. Wilson, and Albert M. Toth, 32–33. Heritage Committee of the Slate Belt Bicentennial Commission.<br />
<br />
* Straka, Thomas J., and Wayne C. Ramer. 2010. “History on the Road: Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site.” Forest History Today Spring/Fall: 58–62. https://foresthistory.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/2010_History-on-Road.pdf<br />
<br />
* Straka, Thomas J.. 2014. "Historic Charcoal Production in the US and Forest Depletion: Development of Production Parameters." Advances in Historical Studies: 104-114. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ahs.2014.32010<br />
<br />
* Wagner, Van. 2008. Fire the Pit- Charcoal Production in Pennsylvania. 4 vols. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RxW7g3IwD1k ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xVE_7hMLMZU ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=88FbebFElaY ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ghj2p9rrUmM.</div>Dmgriederhttps://wiki.ironallentownpa.org/index.php?title=Charcoal_production&diff=108Charcoal production2018-09-12T12:01:30Z<p>Dmgrieder: </p>
<hr />
<div>In nineteenth century Pennsylvania, charcoal was produced primarily to fuel [[iron production]]. Charcoal is the result of the destructive distillation of wood to yield a fuel that is primarily carbon. In the 19th century, when iron production was at its peak, the demand for charcoal as fuel for furnaces had an impact on forests. As a result, the charcoal industry was one of the first to think about sustainability and forestry.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Types of Wood==<br />
While most types of wood can become charcoal, hard woods generally produced the best charcoal. Trees like oak, hickory, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chestnut chestnut], and elm were greatly preferred to softer woods, like gum and poplar. <ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 59.</ref><br />
However, heavier hardwood requires a longer burning so sometimes a mixture of hardwood and softwood was the most effective. The condition of wood was important to the quality of the charcoal output. Knots in the wood, decay, and moisture negatively impact carbonization. <br />
<br />
==Sustainability==<br />
The need for charcoal in the iron industry created a significant demand for wood and a great deal of trees were chopped down for its production. The average output of furnaces between 1750 and 1800 was 100 5o 400 tons of pig iron per year. This required 200 - 400 bushels of charcoal and 50 acres of trees to produce that amount. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 105.</ref> Even though the increased efficiency of furnaces decreased the necessary amount of charcoal, increased production required 150 acres of wood by 1850 and 1,400 acres by 1900. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 106.</ref><br />
<br />
==Making the Hearth==<br />
Charcoal hearths require a large flat area.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref> They are often placed on hillsides to facilitate dirt movement and are usually round. In the center of the hearth, a triangular chimney is made from stacked wood. In the chimney, a large stick called the Fagan pole is inserted. The Fagan pole is used to mark the center of the pit and can be also be removed to provide drought during the process.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref><br />
<br />
==Piling the Wood==<br />
After making the chimney and the pole, the collier leans pieces of hardwood around the chimney. Hardwood was the preferred type of wood to use in charcoal production because it was denser and therefore more conducive to the iron-making process.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 59.</ref><br />
<br />
==Covering the Wood==<br />
The wood in the hearth is first covered with a layer of leaves or straw. Then, that is covered with dirt. The leaves act as a barrier between the wood and the dirt, helping to ensure even charring of the wood.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref><br />
<br />
==Igniting the Wood==<br />
Charcoal hearths were likely lit at the top and burned downwards. <ref>Straka, 2014, pg. 107.</ref> To ignite the wood, kindling wood is put up to the top of the the chimney. Then, hot coals are dropped into the chimney and the opening is covered with a piece called the "bridgen." The bridgen is then covered with leaves and straw.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 2.</ref><br />
<br />
==Ending the Burn==<br />
The burn was ended before all the charcoal was finished burning because this helped Colliers maximize production.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 4.</ref><br />
<br />
==Removing the Charcoal==<br />
To remove the finished charcoal, colliers used a large rake with long times. The tines ensure that the pieces of charcoal are dragged through the dirt on their way out of the hearth. This makes sure that no fires flare up and destroy the charcoal.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 4.</ref><br />
<br />
==Sustainability==<br />
The need for charcoal in the iron industry created a significant demand for wood and a great deal of trees were chopped down for its production. The average output of furnaces between 1750 and 1800 was 100 5o 400 tons of pig iron per year. This required 200 - 400 bushels of charcoal and 50 acres of trees to produce that amount. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 105.</ref> Even though the increased efficiency of furnaces decreased the necessary amount of charcoal, increased production required 150 acres of wood by 1850 and 1,400 acres by 1900. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 106.</ref><br />
Since forests regenerated at different rates, this impacted sustainability. In the Western United States, woodlands took decades to regrow to maturity so woodlands could be depleted in a decade. On the other hand, Eastern furnaces were some of the first to manage forests to ensure a sustainable yield. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 111.</ref><br />
Several early proponents of sustainable forestry were involved in the making of charcoal, like Bernhard E. Fernow, the manager of the Lehigh Furnace from 1879 to 1883. He advocated for coppicing of wood and protection from fire and cattle grazing to speed up regrowth of forest used for charcoal.<br />
<br />
==Charcoal v. Coal==<br />
The transition to coal as the primary fuel for furnaces began around 1840, but in 1859 around three-quarters of furnaces in America (particularly in Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York) still primarily used charcoal. Charcoal remained a source of fuel in some places until 1945. <br />
<br />
Charcoal tended to produce a higher quality of iron than coal, partially because of its density. Iron made from charcoal had a "fine grain" compared to iron made by coal and maintained a better<br />
cutting edge. <ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 59.</ref><br />
<br />
==Collier Life==<br />
The public's general impression of Colliers was that they were dirty and uncivilized. [[Historically]], the collier profession, was not one for the faint of heart, as great skill was required in order to successfully maintain multiple charcoal hearths at one time for months on end. <ref>Straka and Wayne 2010, p. 60</ref> Living alone, or occasionally with a son or apprentice, colliers couldn't afford to lose concentration or dedication for even one moment, as the slightest wayward breeze or hole in the charcoal hearth could cause irreparable damage. <ref>Fire the Pit, youtube</ref> This profession required almost constant twenty-four-hour surveillance of the hearths [https://www.nps.gov/media/video/view.htm?id=FB3FA03A-1DD8-B71C-071149ADB08DBD2E.] The most dangerous job of a collier was called"jumping the pit." This crucial job required a collier to climb up onto the hearth and pack down the dirt as best they could. If anything went awry, they risked falling into the smoldering charcoal fire. <ref>Straka and Wayne 2010, p. 60</ref> While making charcoal, colliers lived in [[collier's huts]]. In the winter months, Colliers became wood-cutters in order to get a full-years wage, as the ideal season to make charcoal was during the warmer months so that the [production of charcoal] could continue when it grew warm. <ref>Kemper, 1941, p. 10.</ref><br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<references /><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
* "Agriculture andrRural economy – Charcoal → ." The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project. Ann Arbor: Michigan Publishing, University of Michigan Library, 2010. http://hdl.handle.net/2027/spo.did2222.0001.346 (accessed [fill in today's date in the form April 18, 2009 and remove square brackets]). Originally published as "Agriculture et économie rustique – Charbon de bois," Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, vol. 1 (plates) (Paris, 1762).<br />
<br />
* Jones, Claude A. 1976. “Making Charcoal at Jacobsburg.” In Slate Belt Bicentennial Heritage, edited by Marjorie May, Maryann Repsher, Robert R. Saltern, Gordon E. Wilson, and Albert M. Toth, 32–33. Heritage Committee of the Slate Belt Bicentennial Commission.<br />
<br />
* Straka, Thomas J., and Wayne C. Ramer. 2010. “History on the Road: Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site.” Forest History Today Spring/Fall: 58–62. https://foresthistory.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/2010_History-on-Road.pdf<br />
<br />
* Straka, Thomas J.. 2014. "Historic Charcoal Production in the US and Forest Depletion: Development of Production Parameters." Advances in Historical Studies: 104-114. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ahs.2014.32010<br />
<br />
* Wagner, Van. 2008. Fire the Pit- Charcoal Production in Pennsylvania. 4 vols. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RxW7g3IwD1k ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xVE_7hMLMZU ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=88FbebFElaY ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ghj2p9rrUmM.</div>Dmgriederhttps://wiki.ironallentownpa.org/index.php?title=Charcoal_production&diff=107Charcoal production2018-09-12T11:59:12Z<p>Dmgrieder: /* Collier Life */</p>
<hr />
<div>In nineteenth century Pennsylvania, charcoal was produced primarily to fuel [[iron production]]. Charcoal is the result of the destructive distillation of wood to yield a fuel that is primarily carbon. In the 19th century, when iron production was at its peak, the demand for charcoal as fuel for furnaces had an impact on forests. As a result, the charcoal industry was one of the first to think about sustainability and forestry.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Types of Wood==<br />
While most types of wood can become charcoal, hard woods generally produced the best charcoal. Trees like oak, hickory, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chestnut chestnut], and elm were greatly preferred to softer woods, like gum and poplar. <ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 59.</ref><br />
However, heavier hardwood requires a longer burning so sometimes a mixture of hardwood and softwood was the most effective. The condition of wood was important to the quality of the charcoal output. Knots in the wood, decay, and moisture negatively impact carbonization. <br />
<br />
==Sustainability==<br />
The need for charcoal in the iron industry created a significant demand for wood and a great deal of trees were chopped down for its production. The average output of furnaces between 1750 and 1800 was 100 5o 400 tons of pig iron per year. This required 200 - 400 bushels of charcoal and 50 acres of trees to produce that amount. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 105.</ref> Even though the increased efficiency of furnaces decreased the necessary amount of charcoal, increased production required 150 acres of wood by 1850 and 1,400 acres by 1900. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 106.</ref><br />
<br />
==Making the Hearth==<br />
Charcoal hearths require a large flat area.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref> They are often placed on hillsides to facilitate dirt movement and are usually round. In the center of the hearth, a triangular chimney is made from stacked wood. In the chimney, a large stick called the Fagan pole is inserted. The Fagan pole is used to mark the center of the pit and can be also be removed to provide drought during the process.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref><br />
<br />
==Piling the Wood==<br />
After making the chimney and the pole, the collier leans pieces of hardwood around the chimney. Hardwood was the preferred type of wood to use in charcoal production because it was denser and therefore more conducive to the iron-making process.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 59.</ref><br />
<br />
==Covering the Wood==<br />
The wood in the hearth is first covered with a layer of leaves or straw. Then, that is covered with dirt. The leaves act as a barrier between the wood and the dirt, helping to ensure even charring of the wood.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref><br />
<br />
==Igniting the Wood==<br />
Charcoal hearths were likely lit at the top and burned downwards. <ref>Straka, 2014, pg. 107.</ref> To ignite the wood, kindling wood is put up to the top of the the chimney. Then, hot coals are dropped into the chimney and the opening is covered with a piece called the "bridgen." The bridgen is then covered with leaves and straw.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 2.</ref><br />
<br />
==Ending the Burn==<br />
The burn was ended before all the charcoal was finished burning because this helped Colliers maximize production.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 4.</ref><br />
<br />
==Removing the Charcoal==<br />
To remove the finished charcoal, colliers used a large rake with long times. The tines ensure that the pieces of charcoal are dragged through the dirt on their way out of the hearth. This makes sure that no fires flare up and destroy the charcoal.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 4.</ref><br />
<br />
==Sustainability==<br />
The need for charcoal in the iron industry created a significant demand for wood and a great deal of trees were chopped down for its production. The average output of furnaces between 1750 and 1800 was 100 5o 400 tons of pig iron per year. This required 200 - 400 bushels of charcoal and 50 acres of trees to produce that amount. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 105.</ref> Even though the increased efficiency of furnaces decreased the necessary amount of charcoal, increased production required 150 acres of wood by 1850 and 1,400 acres by 1900. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 106.</ref><br />
Since forests regenerated at different rates, this impacted sustainability. In the Western United States, woodlands took decades to regrow to maturity so woodlands could be depleted in a decade. On the other hand, Eastern furnaces were some of the first to manage forests to ensure a sustainable yield. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 111.</ref><br />
Several early proponents of sustainable forestry were involved in the making of charcoal, like Bernhard E. Fernow, the manager of the Lehigh Furnace from 1879 to 1883. He advocated for coppicing of wood and protection from fire and cattle grazing to speed up regrowth of forest used for charcoal.<br />
<br />
==Charcoal v. Coal==<br />
The transition to coal as the primary fuel for furnaces began around 1840, but in 1859 around three-quarters of furnaces in America (particularly in Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York) still primarily used charcoal. Charcoal remained a source of fuel in some places until 1945. <br />
<br />
Charcoal tended to produce a higher quality of iron than coal, partially because of its density. Iron made from charcoal had a "fine grain" compared to iron made by coal and maintained a better<br />
cutting edge. <ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 59.</ref><br />
<br />
==Collier Life==<br />
The public's general impression of Colliers was that they were dirty and uncivilized. [[Historically]], the collier profession, was not one for the faint of heart, as great skill was required in order to successfully maintain multiple charcoal hearths at one time for months on end. <ref>Straka and Wayne 2010, p. 60</ref> Living alone, or occasionally with a son or apprentice, colliers couldn't afford to lose concentration or dedication for even one moment, as the slightest wayward breeze or hole in the charcoal hearth could cause irreparable damage. <ref>Fire the Pit, youtube</ref> This profession required almost constant twenty-four-hour surveillance of the hearths [https://www.nps.gov/media/video/view.htm?id=FB3FA03A-1DD8-B71C-071149ADB08DBD2E.] The most dangerous job of a collier was called"jumping the pit." This crucial job required a collier to climb up onto the hearth and pack down the dirt as best they could. If anything went awry, they risked falling into the smoldering charcoal fire. <ref>Straka and Wayne 2010, p. 60</ref> While making charcoal, colliers lived in [[collier's huts]]. In the winter months, Colliers became wood-cutters in order to get a full-years wage, as the ideal season to make charcoal was during the warmer months. <ref>Kemper, 1941, p. 10.</ref><br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<references /><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
* "Agriculture andrRural economy – Charcoal → ." The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project. Ann Arbor: Michigan Publishing, University of Michigan Library, 2010. http://hdl.handle.net/2027/spo.did2222.0001.346 (accessed [fill in today's date in the form April 18, 2009 and remove square brackets]). Originally published as "Agriculture et économie rustique – Charbon de bois," Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, vol. 1 (plates) (Paris, 1762).<br />
<br />
* Jones, Claude A. 1976. “Making Charcoal at Jacobsburg.” In Slate Belt Bicentennial Heritage, edited by Marjorie May, Maryann Repsher, Robert R. Saltern, Gordon E. Wilson, and Albert M. Toth, 32–33. Heritage Committee of the Slate Belt Bicentennial Commission.<br />
<br />
* Straka, Thomas J., and Wayne C. Ramer. 2010. “History on the Road: Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site.” Forest History Today Spring/Fall: 58–62. https://foresthistory.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/2010_History-on-Road.pdf<br />
<br />
* Straka, Thomas J.. 2014. "Historic Charcoal Production in the US and Forest Depletion: Development of Production Parameters." Advances in Historical Studies: 104-114. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ahs.2014.32010<br />
<br />
* Wagner, Van. 2008. Fire the Pit- Charcoal Production in Pennsylvania. 4 vols. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RxW7g3IwD1k ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xVE_7hMLMZU ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=88FbebFElaY ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ghj2p9rrUmM.</div>Dmgriederhttps://wiki.ironallentownpa.org/index.php?title=Charcoal_production&diff=103Charcoal production2018-09-12T11:36:36Z<p>Dmgrieder: /* Collier Life */</p>
<hr />
<div>In nineteenth century Pennsylvania, charcoal was produced primarily to fuel [[iron production]]. Charcoal is the result of the destructive distillation of wood to yield a fuel that is primarily carbon. In the 19th century, when iron production was at its peak, the demand for charcoal as fuel for furnaces had an impact on forests. As a result, the charcoal industry was one of the first to think about sustainability and forestry.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Types of Wood==<br />
While most types of wood can become charcoal, hard woods generally produced the best charcoal. Trees like oak, hickory, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chestnut chestnut], and elm were greatly preferred to softer woods, like gum and poplar. <ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 59.</ref><br />
However, heavier hardwood requires a longer burning so sometimes a mixture of hardwood and softwood was the most effective. The condition of wood was important to the quality of the charcoal output. Knots in the wood, decay, and moisture negatively impact carbonization. <br />
<br />
==Sustainability==<br />
The need for charcoal in the iron industry created a significant demand for wood and a great deal of trees were chopped down for its production. The average output of furnaces between 1750 and 1800 was 100 5o 400 tons of pig iron per year. This required 200 - 400 bushels of charcoal and 50 acres of trees to produce that amount. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 105.</ref> Even though the increased efficiency of furnaces decreased the necessary amount of charcoal, increased production required 150 acres of wood by 1850 and 1,400 acres by 1900. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 106.</ref><br />
<br />
==Making the Hearth==<br />
Charcoal hearths require a large flat area.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref> They are often placed on hillsides to facilitate dirt movement and are usually round. In the center of the hearth, a triangular chimney is made from stacked wood. In the chimney, a large stick called the Fagan pole is inserted. The Fagan pole is used to mark the center of the pit and can be also be removed to provide drought during the process.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref><br />
<br />
==Piling the Wood==<br />
After making the chimney and the pole, the collier leans pieces of hardwood around the chimney. Hardwood was the preferred type of wood to use in charcoal production because it was denser and therefore more conducive to the iron-making process.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 59.</ref><br />
<br />
==Covering the Wood==<br />
The wood in the hearth is first covered with a layer of leaves or straw. Then, that is covered with dirt. The leaves act as a barrier between the wood and the dirt, helping to ensure even charring of the wood.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref><br />
<br />
==Igniting the Wood==<br />
Charcoal hearths were likely lit at the top and burned downwards. <ref>Straka, 2014, pg. 107.</ref> To ignite the wood, kindling wood is put up to the top of the the chimney. Then, hot coals are dropped into the chimney and the opening is covered with a piece called the "bridgen." The bridgen is then covered with leaves and straw.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 2.</ref><br />
<br />
==Ending the Burn==<br />
The burn was ended before all the charcoal was finished burning because this helped Colliers maximize production.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 4.</ref><br />
<br />
==Removing the Charcoal==<br />
To remove the finished charcoal, colliers used a large rake with long times. The tines ensure that the pieces of charcoal are dragged through the dirt on their way out of the hearth. This makes sure that no fires flare up and destroy the charcoal.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 4.</ref><br />
<br />
==Sustainability==<br />
The need for charcoal in the iron industry created a significant demand for wood and a great deal of trees were chopped down for its production. The average output of furnaces between 1750 and 1800 was 100 5o 400 tons of pig iron per year. This required 200 - 400 bushels of charcoal and 50 acres of trees to produce that amount. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 105.</ref> Even though the increased efficiency of furnaces decreased the necessary amount of charcoal, increased production required 150 acres of wood by 1850 and 1,400 acres by 1900. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 106.</ref><br />
Since forests regenerated at different rates, this impacted sustainability. In the Western United States, woodlands took decades to regrow to maturity so woodlands could be depleted in a decade. On the other hand, Eastern furnaces were some of the first to manage forests to ensure a sustainable yield. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 111.</ref><br />
Several early proponents of sustainable forestry were involved in the making of charcoal, like Bernhard E. Fernow, the manager of the Lehigh Furnace from 1879 to 1883. He advocated for coppicing of wood and protection from fire and cattle grazing to speed up regrowth of forest used for charcoal.<br />
<br />
==Charcoal v. Coal==<br />
The transition to coal as the primary fuel for furnaces began around 1840, but in 1859 around three-quarters of furnaces in America (particularly in Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York) still primarily used charcoal. Charcoal remained a source of fuel in some places until 1945. <br />
<br />
Charcoal tended to produce a higher quality of iron than coal, partially because of its density. Iron made from charcoal had a "fine grain" compared to iron made by coal and maintained a better<br />
cutting edge. <ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 59.</ref><br />
<br />
==Collier Life==<br />
The public's general impression of Colliers was that they were dirty and uncivilized. [[Historically]], the collier profession, was not one for the faint of heart, as great skill was required in order to successfully maintain multiple charcoal hearths at one time for months on end. <ref>Straka and Wayne 2010, p. 60</ref> Living alone, or occasionally with a son or friend, colliers couldn't afford to lose concentration or dedication for even one moment, as the slightest wayward breeze or hole in the charcoal hearth could cause irreparable damage. <ref>Fire the Pit, youtube</ref> This profession required almost constant twenty-four-hour surveillance of the hearths [https://www.nps.gov/media/video/view.htm?id=FB3FA03A-1DD8-B71C-071149ADB08DBD2E.] The most dangerous job of a collier was called"jumping the pit." This crucial job required a collier to climb up onto the hearth and pack down the dirt as best they could. If anything went awry, they risked falling into the smoldering charcoal fire. <ref>Straka and Wayne 2010, p. 60</ref> While making charcoal, colliers lived in [[collier's huts]].<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<references /><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
* "Agriculture andrRural economy – Charcoal → ." The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project. Ann Arbor: Michigan Publishing, University of Michigan Library, 2010. http://hdl.handle.net/2027/spo.did2222.0001.346 (accessed [fill in today's date in the form April 18, 2009 and remove square brackets]). Originally published as "Agriculture et économie rustique – Charbon de bois," Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, vol. 1 (plates) (Paris, 1762).<br />
<br />
* Jones, Claude A. 1976. “Making Charcoal at Jacobsburg.” In Slate Belt Bicentennial Heritage, edited by Marjorie May, Maryann Repsher, Robert R. Saltern, Gordon E. Wilson, and Albert M. Toth, 32–33. Heritage Committee of the Slate Belt Bicentennial Commission.<br />
<br />
* Straka, Thomas J., and Wayne C. Ramer. 2010. “History on the Road: Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site.” Forest History Today Spring/Fall: 58–62. https://foresthistory.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/2010_History-on-Road.pdf<br />
<br />
* Straka, Thomas J.. 2014. "Historic Charcoal Production in the US and Forest Depletion: Development of Production Parameters." Advances in Historical Studies: 104-114. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ahs.2014.32010<br />
<br />
* Wagner, Van. 2008. Fire the Pit- Charcoal Production in Pennsylvania. 4 vols. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RxW7g3IwD1k ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xVE_7hMLMZU ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=88FbebFElaY ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ghj2p9rrUmM.</div>Dmgriederhttps://wiki.ironallentownpa.org/index.php?title=Pit_or_kiln.&diff=102Pit or kiln.2018-09-12T11:33:36Z<p>Dmgrieder: </p>
<hr />
<div>The use of the charcoal kiln had several advantages over the pit. Kilns were more expensive to manufacture, yet saved money in the long run, 1.5 cents per bushel to be exact <ref>Straka, T.J. 2014, p. 110.</ref>. Kilns were also able to produce more yield than pits, and the charcoal that was made was cleaner and fresher as it wasn't in contact with the forest floor. Kilns were also conveniently able to be placed where they could be watched with more ease, as opposed to a pit, where colliers had to spend months in isolation. Kilns also reduced overall labor, as the covering was permanent, whereas the pit had to be covered manually each round. Transportation costs and damage to the charcoal also decreased with kiln use, which made it all the more popular. <ref>Straka, T.J. 2014, p. 110.</ref><br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<references /><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
* Straka, T. J. (2014). Historic Charcoal Production in the US and Forest Depletion: Development of<br />
Production Parameters. Advances in Historical Studies, 3, 104-114. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ahs.2014.32010</div>Dmgriederhttps://wiki.ironallentownpa.org/index.php?title=Pit_or_kiln.&diff=93Pit or kiln.2018-09-09T19:07:55Z<p>Dmgrieder: </p>
<hr />
<div>The use of the charcoal kiln had several advantages over the pit. Kilns were more expensive to manufacture, yet saved money in the long run, 1.5 cents per bushel to be exact <ref>Straka, T.J. 2014, p. 110.</ref>. Kilns were also able to produce more yield than pits, and the charcoal that was made was cleaner and fresher as it wasn't in contact with the forest floor. Kilns were also conveniently able to be placed where they could be watched with more ease, as opposed to a pit, where colliers had to spend months in isolation. Kilns also reduced overall labor, as the covering was permanent, whereas the pit had to be covered manually each round. Transportation costs and damage to the charcoal also decreased with kiln use, which made it all the more popular. <ref>Straka, T.J. 2014, p. 110.</ref></div>Dmgriederhttps://wiki.ironallentownpa.org/index.php?title=Pit_or_kiln.&diff=92Pit or kiln.2018-09-09T19:06:23Z<p>Dmgrieder: </p>
<hr />
<div>The use of the charcoal kiln had several advantages over the pit. Kilns were more expensive to manufacture, yet saved money in the long run, 1.5 cents per bushel to be exact <ref>Straka, T.J. 2014, p. 110.</ref>. Kilns were also able to produce more yield than pits, and the charcoal that was made was cleaner and fresher as it wasn't in contact with the forest floor. Kilns were also conveniently able to be placed where they could be watched with more ease, as opposed to a pit, where colliers had to spend months in isolation. Kilns also reduced overall labor, as the covering was permanent, whereas the pit had to be covered manually each round. Transportation costs and damage to the charcoal also decreased with kiln use, which made them all the more popular. <ref>Straka, T.J. 2014, p. 110.</ref></div>Dmgriederhttps://wiki.ironallentownpa.org/index.php?title=Pit_or_kiln.&diff=91Pit or kiln.2018-09-09T19:05:48Z<p>Dmgrieder: Pit vs. Kiln</p>
<hr />
<div>The use of the charcoal kiln had several advantages over the pit. Kilns were more expensive to manufacture, yet saved money in the long run, 1.5 cents per bushel to be exact <ref>Straka, T.J. 2014, p. 110.</ref>. Kilns were also able to produce more yield than pits, and the charcoal that was made was cleaner and fresher as it wasn't in contact with the forest floor. Kilns were also conveniently able to be placed where they could be watched with more ease, as opposed to a pit, where colliers had to spend months in isolation. Kilns also reduced overall labor, as the covering was permanent, whereas the pit had to be covered manually each round. Transportation costs and damage to the charcoal also decreased with kiln use, which made it all the more popular. <ref>Straka, T.J. 2014, p. 110.</ref></div>Dmgriederhttps://wiki.ironallentownpa.org/index.php?title=Charcoal_production&diff=88Charcoal production2018-09-09T17:38:51Z<p>Dmgrieder: /* Collier Life */</p>
<hr />
<div>In nineteenth century Pennsylvania, charcoal was produced primarily to fuel [[iron production]]. Charcoal is the result of the destructive distillation of wood to yield a fuel that is primarily carbon. In the 19th century, when iron production was at its peak, the demand for charcoal as fuel for furnaces had an impact on forests. As a result, the charcoal industry was one of the first to think about sustainability and forestry.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Types of Wood==<br />
While most types of wood can become charcoal, hard woods generally produced the best charcoal. Trees like oak, hickory, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chestnut chestnut], and elm were greatly preferred to softer woods, like gum and poplar.<br />
However, heavier hardwood requires a longer burning so sometimes a mixture of hardwood and softwood was the most effective. The condition of wood was important to the quality of the charcoal output. Knots in the wood, decay, and moisture negatively impact carbonization. <br />
<br />
==Sustainability==<br />
The need for charcoal in the iron industry created a significant demand for wood and a great deal of trees were chopped down for its production. The average output of furnaces between 1750 and 1800 was 100 5o 400 tons of pig iron per year. This required 200 - 400 bushels of charcoal and 50 acres of trees to produce that amount. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 105.</ref> Even though the increased efficiency of furnaces decreased the necessary amount of charcoal, increased production required 150 acres of wood by 1850 and 1,400 acres by 1900. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 106.</ref><br />
<br />
==Making the Hearth==<br />
Charcoal hearths require a large flat area.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref> They are often placed on hillsides to facilitate dirt movement and are usually round. In the center of the hearth, a triangular chimney is made from stacked wood. In the chimney, a large stick called the Fagan pole is inserted. The Fagan pole is used to mark the center of the pit and can be also be removed to provide drought during the process.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref><br />
<br />
==Piling the Wood==<br />
After making the chimney and the pole, the collier leans pieces of hardwood around the chimney. Hardwood was the preferred type of wood to use in charcoal production because it was denser and therefore more conducive to the iron-making process.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 59.</ref><br />
<br />
==Covering the Wood==<br />
The wood in the hearth is first covered with a layer of leaves or straw. Then, that is covered with dirt. The leaves act as a barrier between the wood and the dirt, helping to ensure even charring of the wood.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref><br />
<br />
==Igniting the Wood==<br />
Charcoal hearths were likely lit at the top and burned downwards. <ref>Straka, 2014, pg. 107.</ref> To ignite the wood, kindling wood is put up to the top of the the chimney. Then, hot coals are dropped into the chimney and the opening is covered with a piece called the "bridgen." The bridgen is then covered with leaves and straw.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 2.</ref><br />
<br />
==Ending the Burn==<br />
The burn was ended before all the charcoal was finished burning because this helped Colliers maximize production.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 4.</ref><br />
<br />
==Removing the Charcoal==<br />
To remove the finished charcoal, colliers used a large rake with long times. The tines ensure that the pieces of charcoal are dragged through the dirt on their way out of the hearth. This makes sure that no fires flare up and destroy the charcoal.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 4.</ref><br />
<br />
==Sustainability==<br />
The need for charcoal in the iron industry created a significant demand for wood and a great deal of trees were chopped down for its production. The average output of furnaces between 1750 and 1800 was 100 5o 400 tons of pig iron per year. This required 200 - 400 bushels of charcoal and 50 acres of trees to produce that amount. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 105.</ref> Even though the increased efficiency of furnaces decreased the necessary amount of charcoal, increased production required 150 acres of wood by 1850 and 1,400 acres by 1900. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 106.</ref><br />
Since forests regenerated at different rates, this impacted sustainability. In the Western United States, woodlands took decades to regrow to maturity so woodlands could be depleted in a decade. On the other hand, Eastern furnaces were some of the first to manage forests to ensure a sustainable yield. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 111.</ref><br />
Several early proponents of sustainable forestry were involved in the making of charcoal, like Bernhard E. Fernow, the manager of the Lehigh Furnace from 1879 to 1883. He advocated for coppicing of wood and protection from fire and cattle grazing to speed up regrowth of forest used for charcoal.<br />
<br />
==Charcoal v. Coal==<br />
The transition to coal as the primary fuel for furnaces began around 1840, but in 1859 around three-quarters of furnaces in America (particularly in Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York) still primarily used charcoal. Charcoal remained a source of fuel in some places until 1945. <br />
<br />
Charcoal tended to produce a higher quality of iron than coal, partially because of its density. Iron made from charcoal had a "fine grain" compared to iron made by coal and maintained a better<br />
cutting edge.<br />
<br />
==Collier Life==<br />
The public's general impression of Colliers was that they were dirty and uncivilized. [[Historically]], the collier profession, was not one for the faint of heart, as great skill was required in order to successfully maintain multiple charcoal hearths at one time for months on end. <ref>Straka and Wayne 2010, p. 60</ref> Living alone, or occasionally with a son or friend, colliers couldn't afford to lose concentration or dedication for even one moment, as the slightest wayward breeze or hole in the charcoal hearth could cause irreparable damage. <ref>Fire the Pit, youtube</ref> This profession required almost constant twenty-four-hour surveillance of the hearths [https://www.nps.gov/media/video/view.htm?id=FB3FA03A-1DD8-B71C-071149ADB08DBD2E.] The most dangerous job of a collier was called"jumping the pit." This crucial job required a collier to climb up onto the hearth and pack down the dirt as best they could. If anything went awry, they risked falling into the smoldering charcoal fire. <ref>Straka and Wayne 2010, p. 60</ref> Colliers resided in huts laid out in a circle and framed by wood, insulated later on with mud, leaves, and dirt. There was oftentimes a large stone hearth or fireplace in the corner used for cooking and heating.<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<references /><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
* "Agriculture andrRural economy – Charcoal → ." The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project. Ann Arbor: Michigan Publishing, University of Michigan Library, 2010. http://hdl.handle.net/2027/spo.did2222.0001.346 (accessed [fill in today's date in the form April 18, 2009 and remove square brackets]). Originally published as "Agriculture et économie rustique – Charbon de bois," Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, vol. 1 (plates) (Paris, 1762).<br />
<br />
* Jones, Claude A. 1976. “Making Charcoal at Jacobsburg.” In Slate Belt Bicentennial Heritage, edited by Marjorie May, Maryann Repsher, Robert R. Saltern, Gordon E. Wilson, and Albert M. Toth, 32–33. Heritage Committee of the Slate Belt Bicentennial Commission.<br />
<br />
* Straka, Thomas J., and Wayne C. Ramer. 2010. “History on the Road: Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site.” Forest History Today Spring/Fall: 58–62. https://foresthistory.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/2010_History-on-Road.pdf<br />
<br />
* Straka, Thomas J.. 2014. "Historic Charcoal Production in the US and Forest Depletion: Development of Production Parameters." Advances in Historical Studies: 104-114. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ahs.2014.32010<br />
<br />
* Wagner, Van. 2008. Fire the Pit- Charcoal Production in Pennsylvania. 4 vols. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RxW7g3IwD1k ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xVE_7hMLMZU ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=88FbebFElaY ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ghj2p9rrUmM.</div>Dmgriederhttps://wiki.ironallentownpa.org/index.php?title=Charcoal_production&diff=87Charcoal production2018-09-09T17:37:32Z<p>Dmgrieder: /* Collier Life */</p>
<hr />
<div>In nineteenth century Pennsylvania, charcoal was produced primarily to fuel [[iron production]]. Charcoal is the result of the destructive distillation of wood to yield a fuel that is primarily carbon. In the 19th century, when iron production was at its peak, the demand for charcoal as fuel for furnaces had an impact on forests. As a result, the charcoal industry was one of the first to think about sustainability and forestry.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Types of Wood==<br />
While most types of wood can become charcoal, hard woods generally produced the best charcoal. Trees like oak, hickory, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chestnut chestnut], and elm were greatly preferred to softer woods, like gum and poplar.<br />
However, heavier hardwood requires a longer burning so sometimes a mixture of hardwood and softwood was the most effective. The condition of wood was important to the quality of the charcoal output. Knots in the wood, decay, and moisture negatively impact carbonization. <br />
<br />
==Sustainability==<br />
The need for charcoal in the iron industry created a significant demand for wood and a great deal of trees were chopped down for its production. The average output of furnaces between 1750 and 1800 was 100 5o 400 tons of pig iron per year. This required 200 - 400 bushels of charcoal and 50 acres of trees to produce that amount. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 105.</ref> Even though the increased efficiency of furnaces decreased the necessary amount of charcoal, increased production required 150 acres of wood by 1850 and 1,400 acres by 1900. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 106.</ref><br />
<br />
==Making the Hearth==<br />
Charcoal hearths require a large flat area.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref> They are often placed on hillsides to facilitate dirt movement and are usually round. In the center of the hearth, a triangular chimney is made from stacked wood. In the chimney, a large stick called the Fagan pole is inserted. The Fagan pole is used to mark the center of the pit and can be also be removed to provide drought during the process.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref><br />
<br />
==Piling the Wood==<br />
After making the chimney and the pole, the collier leans pieces of hardwood around the chimney. Hardwood was the preferred type of wood to use in charcoal production because it was denser and therefore more conducive to the iron-making process.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 59.</ref><br />
<br />
==Covering the Wood==<br />
The wood in the hearth is first covered with a layer of leaves or straw. Then, that is covered with dirt. The leaves act as a barrier between the wood and the dirt, helping to ensure even charring of the wood.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref><br />
<br />
==Igniting the Wood==<br />
Charcoal hearths were likely lit at the top and burned downwards. <ref>Straka, 2014, pg. 107.</ref> To ignite the wood, kindling wood is put up to the top of the the chimney. Then, hot coals are dropped into the chimney and the opening is covered with a piece called the "bridgen." The bridgen is then covered with leaves and straw.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 2.</ref><br />
<br />
==Ending the Burn==<br />
The burn was ended before all the charcoal was finished burning because this helped Colliers maximize production.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 4.</ref><br />
<br />
==Removing the Charcoal==<br />
To remove the finished charcoal, colliers used a large rake with long times. The tines ensure that the pieces of charcoal are dragged through the dirt on their way out of the hearth. This makes sure that no fires flare up and destroy the charcoal.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 4.</ref><br />
<br />
==Sustainability==<br />
The need for charcoal in the iron industry created a significant demand for wood and a great deal of trees were chopped down for its production. The average output of furnaces between 1750 and 1800 was 100 5o 400 tons of pig iron per year. This required 200 - 400 bushels of charcoal and 50 acres of trees to produce that amount. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 105.</ref> Even though the increased efficiency of furnaces decreased the necessary amount of charcoal, increased production required 150 acres of wood by 1850 and 1,400 acres by 1900. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 106.</ref><br />
Since forests regenerated at different rates, this impacted sustainability. In the Western United States, woodlands took decades to regrow to maturity so woodlands could be depleted in a decade. On the other hand, Eastern furnaces were some of the first to manage forests to ensure a sustainable yield. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 111.</ref><br />
Several early proponents of sustainable forestry were involved in the making of charcoal, like Bernhard E. Fernow, the manager of the Lehigh Furnace from 1879 to 1883. He advocated for coppicing of wood and protection from fire and cattle grazing to speed up regrowth of forest used for charcoal.<br />
<br />
==Charcoal v. Coal==<br />
The transition to coal as the primary fuel for furnaces began around 1840, but in 1859 around three-quarters of furnaces in America (particularly in Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York) still primarily used charcoal. Charcoal remained a source of fuel in some places until 1945. <br />
<br />
Charcoal tended to produce a higher quality of iron than coal, partially because of its density. Iron made from charcoal had a "fine grain" compared to iron made by coal and maintained a better<br />
cutting edge.<br />
<br />
==Collier Life==<br />
The public's general impression of Colliers was that they were dirty and uncivilized. The collier profession, though, was not one for the faint of heart, as great skill was required in order to successfully maintain multiple [[charcoal hearths]] at one time for months on end. <ref>Straka and Wayne 2010, p. 60</ref> Living alone, or occasionally with a son or friend, colliers couldn't afford to lose concentration or dedication for even one moment, as the slightest wayward breeze or hole in the charcoal hearth could cause irreparable damage. <ref>Fire the Pit, youtube</ref> This profession required almost constant twenty-four-hour surveillance of the hearths [https://www.nps.gov/media/video/view.htm?id=FB3FA03A-1DD8-B71C-071149ADB08DBD2E.] The most dangerous job of a collier was called"jumping the pit." This crucial job required a collier to climb up onto the hearth and pack down the dirt as best they could. If anything went awry, they risked falling into the smoldering charcoal fire. <ref>Straka and Wayne 2010, p. 60</ref> Colliers resided in huts laid out in a circle and framed by wood, insulated later on with mud, leaves, and dirt. There was oftentimes a large stone hearth or fireplace in the corner used for cooking and heating.<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<references /><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
* "Agriculture andrRural economy – Charcoal → ." The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project. Ann Arbor: Michigan Publishing, University of Michigan Library, 2010. http://hdl.handle.net/2027/spo.did2222.0001.346 (accessed [fill in today's date in the form April 18, 2009 and remove square brackets]). Originally published as "Agriculture et économie rustique – Charbon de bois," Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, vol. 1 (plates) (Paris, 1762).<br />
<br />
* Jones, Claude A. 1976. “Making Charcoal at Jacobsburg.” In Slate Belt Bicentennial Heritage, edited by Marjorie May, Maryann Repsher, Robert R. Saltern, Gordon E. Wilson, and Albert M. Toth, 32–33. Heritage Committee of the Slate Belt Bicentennial Commission.<br />
<br />
* Straka, Thomas J., and Wayne C. Ramer. 2010. “History on the Road: Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site.” Forest History Today Spring/Fall: 58–62. https://foresthistory.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/2010_History-on-Road.pdf<br />
<br />
* Straka, Thomas J.. 2014. "Historic Charcoal Production in the US and Forest Depletion: Development of Production Parameters." Advances in Historical Studies: 104-114. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ahs.2014.32010<br />
<br />
* Wagner, Van. 2008. Fire the Pit- Charcoal Production in Pennsylvania. 4 vols. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RxW7g3IwD1k ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xVE_7hMLMZU ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=88FbebFElaY ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ghj2p9rrUmM.</div>Dmgriederhttps://wiki.ironallentownpa.org/index.php?title=Charcoal_production&diff=86Charcoal production2018-09-09T17:35:38Z<p>Dmgrieder: /* Collier Life */</p>
<hr />
<div>In nineteenth century Pennsylvania, charcoal was produced primarily to fuel [[iron production]]. Charcoal is the result of the destructive distillation of wood to yield a fuel that is primarily carbon. In the 19th century, when iron production was at its peak, the demand for charcoal as fuel for furnaces had an impact on forests. As a result, the charcoal industry was one of the first to think about sustainability and forestry.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Types of Wood==<br />
While most types of wood can become charcoal, hard woods generally produced the best charcoal. Trees like oak, hickory, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chestnut chestnut], and elm were greatly preferred to softer woods, like gum and poplar.<br />
However, heavier hardwood requires a longer burning so sometimes a mixture of hardwood and softwood was the most effective. The condition of wood was important to the quality of the charcoal output. Knots in the wood, decay, and moisture negatively impact carbonization. <br />
<br />
==Sustainability==<br />
The need for charcoal in the iron industry created a significant demand for wood and a great deal of trees were chopped down for its production. The average output of furnaces between 1750 and 1800 was 100 5o 400 tons of pig iron per year. This required 200 - 400 bushels of charcoal and 50 acres of trees to produce that amount. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 105.</ref> Even though the increased efficiency of furnaces decreased the necessary amount of charcoal, increased production required 150 acres of wood by 1850 and 1,400 acres by 1900. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 106.</ref><br />
<br />
==Making the Hearth==<br />
Charcoal hearths require a large flat area.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref> They are often placed on hillsides to facilitate dirt movement and are usually round. In the center of the hearth, a triangular chimney is made from stacked wood. In the chimney, a large stick called the Fagan pole is inserted. The Fagan pole is used to mark the center of the pit and can be also be removed to provide drought during the process.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref><br />
<br />
==Piling the Wood==<br />
After making the chimney and the pole, the collier leans pieces of hardwood around the chimney. Hardwood was the preferred type of wood to use in charcoal production because it was denser and therefore more conducive to the iron-making process.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 59.</ref><br />
<br />
==Covering the Wood==<br />
The wood in the hearth is first covered with a layer of leaves or straw. Then, that is covered with dirt. The leaves act as a barrier between the wood and the dirt, helping to ensure even charring of the wood.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref><br />
<br />
==Igniting the Wood==<br />
Charcoal hearths were likely lit at the top and burned downwards. <ref>Straka, 2014, pg. 107.</ref> To ignite the wood, kindling wood is put up to the top of the the chimney. Then, hot coals are dropped into the chimney and the opening is covered with a piece called the "bridgen." The bridgen is then covered with leaves and straw.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 2.</ref><br />
<br />
==Ending the Burn==<br />
The burn was ended before all the charcoal was finished burning because this helped Colliers maximize production.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 4.</ref><br />
<br />
==Removing the Charcoal==<br />
To remove the finished charcoal, colliers used a large rake with long times. The tines ensure that the pieces of charcoal are dragged through the dirt on their way out of the hearth. This makes sure that no fires flare up and destroy the charcoal.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 4.</ref><br />
<br />
==Sustainability==<br />
The need for charcoal in the iron industry created a significant demand for wood and a great deal of trees were chopped down for its production. The average output of furnaces between 1750 and 1800 was 100 5o 400 tons of pig iron per year. This required 200 - 400 bushels of charcoal and 50 acres of trees to produce that amount. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 105.</ref> Even though the increased efficiency of furnaces decreased the necessary amount of charcoal, increased production required 150 acres of wood by 1850 and 1,400 acres by 1900. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 106.</ref><br />
Since forests regenerated at different rates, this impacted sustainability. In the Western United States, woodlands took decades to regrow to maturity so woodlands could be depleted in a decade. On the other hand, Eastern furnaces were some of the first to manage forests to ensure a sustainable yield. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 111.</ref><br />
Several early proponents of sustainable forestry were involved in the making of charcoal, like Bernhard E. Fernow, the manager of the Lehigh Furnace from 1879 to 1883. He advocated for coppicing of wood and protection from fire and cattle grazing to speed up regrowth of forest used for charcoal.<br />
<br />
==Charcoal v. Coal==<br />
The transition to coal as the primary fuel for furnaces began around 1840, but in 1859 around three-quarters of furnaces in America (particularly in Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York) still primarily used charcoal. Charcoal remained a source of fuel in some places until 1945. <br />
<br />
Charcoal tended to produce a higher quality of iron than coal, partially because of its density. Iron made from charcoal had a "fine grain" compared to iron made by coal and maintained a better<br />
cutting edge.<br />
<br />
==Collier Life==<br />
The public's general impression of Colliers was that they were dirty and uncivilized. The collier profession, though, was not one for the faint of heart, as great skill was required in order to successfully maintain multiple charcoal hearths at one time for months on end. <ref>Straka and Wayne 2010, p. 60</ref> Living alone, or occasionally with a son or friend, colliers couldn't afford to lose concentration or dedication for even one moment, as the slightest wayward breeze or hole in the charcoal hearth could cause irreparable damage. <ref>Fire the Pit, youtube</ref> This profession required almost constant twenty-four-hour surveillance of the hearths [https://www.nps.gov/media/video/view.htm?id=FB3FA03A-1DD8-B71C-071149ADB08DBD2E.] The most dangerous job of a collier was called [["jumping the pit."]] This crucial job required a collier to climb up onto the hearth and pack down the dirt as best they could. If anything went awry, they risked falling into the smoldering charcoal fire. <ref>Straka and Wayne 2010, p. 60</ref> Colliers resided in huts laid out in a circle and framed by wood, insulated later on with mud, leaves, and dirt. There was oftentimes a large stone hearth or fireplace in the corner used for cooking and heating.<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<references /><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
* "Agriculture andrRural economy – Charcoal → ." The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project. Ann Arbor: Michigan Publishing, University of Michigan Library, 2010. http://hdl.handle.net/2027/spo.did2222.0001.346 (accessed [fill in today's date in the form April 18, 2009 and remove square brackets]). Originally published as "Agriculture et économie rustique – Charbon de bois," Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, vol. 1 (plates) (Paris, 1762).<br />
<br />
* Jones, Claude A. 1976. “Making Charcoal at Jacobsburg.” In Slate Belt Bicentennial Heritage, edited by Marjorie May, Maryann Repsher, Robert R. Saltern, Gordon E. Wilson, and Albert M. Toth, 32–33. Heritage Committee of the Slate Belt Bicentennial Commission.<br />
<br />
* Straka, Thomas J., and Wayne C. Ramer. 2010. “History on the Road: Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site.” Forest History Today Spring/Fall: 58–62. https://foresthistory.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/2010_History-on-Road.pdf<br />
<br />
* Straka, Thomas J.. 2014. "Historic Charcoal Production in the US and Forest Depletion: Development of Production Parameters." Advances in Historical Studies: 104-114. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ahs.2014.32010<br />
<br />
* Wagner, Van. 2008. Fire the Pit- Charcoal Production in Pennsylvania. 4 vols. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RxW7g3IwD1k ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xVE_7hMLMZU ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=88FbebFElaY ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ghj2p9rrUmM.</div>Dmgriederhttps://wiki.ironallentownpa.org/index.php?title=Charcoal_production&diff=85Charcoal production2018-09-09T17:35:23Z<p>Dmgrieder: /* Collier Life */</p>
<hr />
<div>In nineteenth century Pennsylvania, charcoal was produced primarily to fuel [[iron production]]. Charcoal is the result of the destructive distillation of wood to yield a fuel that is primarily carbon. In the 19th century, when iron production was at its peak, the demand for charcoal as fuel for furnaces had an impact on forests. As a result, the charcoal industry was one of the first to think about sustainability and forestry.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Types of Wood==<br />
While most types of wood can become charcoal, hard woods generally produced the best charcoal. Trees like oak, hickory, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chestnut chestnut], and elm were greatly preferred to softer woods, like gum and poplar.<br />
However, heavier hardwood requires a longer burning so sometimes a mixture of hardwood and softwood was the most effective. The condition of wood was important to the quality of the charcoal output. Knots in the wood, decay, and moisture negatively impact carbonization. <br />
<br />
==Sustainability==<br />
The need for charcoal in the iron industry created a significant demand for wood and a great deal of trees were chopped down for its production. The average output of furnaces between 1750 and 1800 was 100 5o 400 tons of pig iron per year. This required 200 - 400 bushels of charcoal and 50 acres of trees to produce that amount. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 105.</ref> Even though the increased efficiency of furnaces decreased the necessary amount of charcoal, increased production required 150 acres of wood by 1850 and 1,400 acres by 1900. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 106.</ref><br />
<br />
==Making the Hearth==<br />
Charcoal hearths require a large flat area.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref> They are often placed on hillsides to facilitate dirt movement and are usually round. In the center of the hearth, a triangular chimney is made from stacked wood. In the chimney, a large stick called the Fagan pole is inserted. The Fagan pole is used to mark the center of the pit and can be also be removed to provide drought during the process.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref><br />
<br />
==Piling the Wood==<br />
After making the chimney and the pole, the collier leans pieces of hardwood around the chimney. Hardwood was the preferred type of wood to use in charcoal production because it was denser and therefore more conducive to the iron-making process.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 59.</ref><br />
<br />
==Covering the Wood==<br />
The wood in the hearth is first covered with a layer of leaves or straw. Then, that is covered with dirt. The leaves act as a barrier between the wood and the dirt, helping to ensure even charring of the wood.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref><br />
<br />
==Igniting the Wood==<br />
Charcoal hearths were likely lit at the top and burned downwards. <ref>Straka, 2014, pg. 107.</ref> To ignite the wood, kindling wood is put up to the top of the the chimney. Then, hot coals are dropped into the chimney and the opening is covered with a piece called the "bridgen." The bridgen is then covered with leaves and straw.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 2.</ref><br />
<br />
==Ending the Burn==<br />
The burn was ended before all the charcoal was finished burning because this helped Colliers maximize production.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 4.</ref><br />
<br />
==Removing the Charcoal==<br />
To remove the finished charcoal, colliers used a large rake with long times. The tines ensure that the pieces of charcoal are dragged through the dirt on their way out of the hearth. This makes sure that no fires flare up and destroy the charcoal.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 4.</ref><br />
<br />
==Sustainability==<br />
The need for charcoal in the iron industry created a significant demand for wood and a great deal of trees were chopped down for its production. The average output of furnaces between 1750 and 1800 was 100 5o 400 tons of pig iron per year. This required 200 - 400 bushels of charcoal and 50 acres of trees to produce that amount. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 105.</ref> Even though the increased efficiency of furnaces decreased the necessary amount of charcoal, increased production required 150 acres of wood by 1850 and 1,400 acres by 1900. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 106.</ref><br />
Since forests regenerated at different rates, this impacted sustainability. In the Western United States, woodlands took decades to regrow to maturity so woodlands could be depleted in a decade. On the other hand, Eastern furnaces were some of the first to manage forests to ensure a sustainable yield. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 111.</ref><br />
Several early proponents of sustainable forestry were involved in the making of charcoal, like Bernhard E. Fernow, the manager of the Lehigh Furnace from 1879 to 1883. He advocated for coppicing of wood and protection from fire and cattle grazing to speed up regrowth of forest used for charcoal.<br />
<br />
==Charcoal v. Coal==<br />
The transition to coal as the primary fuel for furnaces began around 1840, but in 1859 around three-quarters of furnaces in America (particularly in Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York) still primarily used charcoal. Charcoal remained a source of fuel in some places until 1945. <br />
<br />
Charcoal tended to produce a higher quality of iron than coal, partially because of its density. Iron made from charcoal had a "fine grain" compared to iron made by coal and maintained a better<br />
cutting edge.<br />
<br />
==Collier Life==<br />
The public's general impression of Colliers was that they were dirty and uncivilized. The collier profession, though, was not one for the faint of heart, as great skill was required in order to successfully maintain multiple charcoal hearths at one time for months on end. <ref>Straka and Wayne 2010, p. 60</ref> Living alone, or occasionally with a son or friend, colliers couldn't afford to lose concentration or dedication for even one moment, as the slightest wayward breeze or hole in the charcoal hearth could cause irreparable damage. <ref>Fire the Pit, youtube</ref> This profession required almost constant twenty-four-hour surveillance of the hearths [https://www.nps.gov/media/video/view.htm?id=FB3FA03A-1DD8-B71C-071149ADB08DBD2E.] The most dangerous job of a collier was called [[["jumping the pit."]]] This crucial job required a collier to climb up onto the hearth and pack down the dirt as best they could. If anything went awry, they risked falling into the smoldering charcoal fire. <ref>Straka and Wayne 2010, p. 60</ref> Colliers resided in huts laid out in a circle and framed by wood, insulated later on with mud, leaves, and dirt. There was oftentimes a large stone hearth or fireplace in the corner used for cooking and heating.<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<references /><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
* "Agriculture andrRural economy – Charcoal → ." The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project. Ann Arbor: Michigan Publishing, University of Michigan Library, 2010. http://hdl.handle.net/2027/spo.did2222.0001.346 (accessed [fill in today's date in the form April 18, 2009 and remove square brackets]). Originally published as "Agriculture et économie rustique – Charbon de bois," Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, vol. 1 (plates) (Paris, 1762).<br />
<br />
* Jones, Claude A. 1976. “Making Charcoal at Jacobsburg.” In Slate Belt Bicentennial Heritage, edited by Marjorie May, Maryann Repsher, Robert R. Saltern, Gordon E. Wilson, and Albert M. Toth, 32–33. Heritage Committee of the Slate Belt Bicentennial Commission.<br />
<br />
* Straka, Thomas J., and Wayne C. Ramer. 2010. “History on the Road: Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site.” Forest History Today Spring/Fall: 58–62. https://foresthistory.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/2010_History-on-Road.pdf<br />
<br />
* Straka, Thomas J.. 2014. "Historic Charcoal Production in the US and Forest Depletion: Development of Production Parameters." Advances in Historical Studies: 104-114. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ahs.2014.32010<br />
<br />
* Wagner, Van. 2008. Fire the Pit- Charcoal Production in Pennsylvania. 4 vols. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RxW7g3IwD1k ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xVE_7hMLMZU ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=88FbebFElaY ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ghj2p9rrUmM.</div>Dmgriederhttps://wiki.ironallentownpa.org/index.php?title=Charcoal_production&diff=84Charcoal production2018-09-09T17:34:30Z<p>Dmgrieder: /* Collier Life */</p>
<hr />
<div>In nineteenth century Pennsylvania, charcoal was produced primarily to fuel [[iron production]]. Charcoal is the result of the destructive distillation of wood to yield a fuel that is primarily carbon. In the 19th century, when iron production was at its peak, the demand for charcoal as fuel for furnaces had an impact on forests. As a result, the charcoal industry was one of the first to think about sustainability and forestry.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Types of Wood==<br />
While most types of wood can become charcoal, hard woods generally produced the best charcoal. Trees like oak, hickory, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chestnut chestnut], and elm were greatly preferred to softer woods, like gum and poplar.<br />
However, heavier hardwood requires a longer burning so sometimes a mixture of hardwood and softwood was the most effective. The condition of wood was important to the quality of the charcoal output. Knots in the wood, decay, and moisture negatively impact carbonization. <br />
<br />
==Sustainability==<br />
The need for charcoal in the iron industry created a significant demand for wood and a great deal of trees were chopped down for its production. The average output of furnaces between 1750 and 1800 was 100 5o 400 tons of pig iron per year. This required 200 - 400 bushels of charcoal and 50 acres of trees to produce that amount. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 105.</ref> Even though the increased efficiency of furnaces decreased the necessary amount of charcoal, increased production required 150 acres of wood by 1850 and 1,400 acres by 1900. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 106.</ref><br />
<br />
==Making the Hearth==<br />
Charcoal hearths require a large flat area.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref> They are often placed on hillsides to facilitate dirt movement and are usually round. In the center of the hearth, a triangular chimney is made from stacked wood. In the chimney, a large stick called the Fagan pole is inserted. The Fagan pole is used to mark the center of the pit and can be also be removed to provide drought during the process.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref><br />
<br />
==Piling the Wood==<br />
After making the chimney and the pole, the collier leans pieces of hardwood around the chimney. Hardwood was the preferred type of wood to use in charcoal production because it was denser and therefore more conducive to the iron-making process.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 59.</ref><br />
<br />
==Covering the Wood==<br />
The wood in the hearth is first covered with a layer of leaves or straw. Then, that is covered with dirt. The leaves act as a barrier between the wood and the dirt, helping to ensure even charring of the wood.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref><br />
<br />
==Igniting the Wood==<br />
Charcoal hearths were likely lit at the top and burned downwards. <ref>Straka, 2014, pg. 107.</ref> To ignite the wood, kindling wood is put up to the top of the the chimney. Then, hot coals are dropped into the chimney and the opening is covered with a piece called the "bridgen." The bridgen is then covered with leaves and straw.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 2.</ref><br />
<br />
==Ending the Burn==<br />
The burn was ended before all the charcoal was finished burning because this helped Colliers maximize production.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 4.</ref><br />
<br />
==Removing the Charcoal==<br />
To remove the finished charcoal, colliers used a large rake with long times. The tines ensure that the pieces of charcoal are dragged through the dirt on their way out of the hearth. This makes sure that no fires flare up and destroy the charcoal.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 4.</ref><br />
<br />
==Sustainability==<br />
The need for charcoal in the iron industry created a significant demand for wood and a great deal of trees were chopped down for its production. The average output of furnaces between 1750 and 1800 was 100 5o 400 tons of pig iron per year. This required 200 - 400 bushels of charcoal and 50 acres of trees to produce that amount. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 105.</ref> Even though the increased efficiency of furnaces decreased the necessary amount of charcoal, increased production required 150 acres of wood by 1850 and 1,400 acres by 1900. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 106.</ref><br />
Since forests regenerated at different rates, this impacted sustainability. In the Western United States, woodlands took decades to regrow to maturity so woodlands could be depleted in a decade. On the other hand, Eastern furnaces were some of the first to manage forests to ensure a sustainable yield. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 111.</ref><br />
Several early proponents of sustainable forestry were involved in the making of charcoal, like Bernhard E. Fernow, the manager of the Lehigh Furnace from 1879 to 1883. He advocated for coppicing of wood and protection from fire and cattle grazing to speed up regrowth of forest used for charcoal.<br />
<br />
==Charcoal v. Coal==<br />
The transition to coal as the primary fuel for furnaces began around 1840, but in 1859 around three-quarters of furnaces in America (particularly in Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York) still primarily used charcoal. Charcoal remained a source of fuel in some places until 1945. <br />
<br />
Charcoal tended to produce a higher quality of iron than coal, partially because of its density. Iron made from charcoal had a "fine grain" compared to iron made by coal and maintained a better<br />
cutting edge.<br />
<br />
==Collier Life==<br />
The public's general impression of Colliers was that they were dirty and uncivilized. The collier profession, though, was not one for the faint of heart, as great skill was required in order to successfully maintain multiple charcoal hearths at one time for months on end. <ref>Straka and Wayne 2010, p. 60</ref> Living alone, or occasionally with a son or friend, colliers couldn't afford to lose concentration or dedication for even one moment, as the slightest wayward breeze or hole in the charcoal hearth could cause irreparable damage. <ref>Fire the Pit, youtube</ref> This profession required almost constant twenty-four-hour surveillance of the hearths [https://www.nps.gov/media/video/view.htm?id=FB3FA03A-1DD8-B71C-071149ADB08DBD2E.] The most dangerous job of a collier was called ["jumping the pit."] This crucial job required a collier to climb up onto the hearth and pack down the dirt as best they could. If anything went awry, they risked falling into the smoldering charcoal fire. <ref>Straka and Wayne 2010, p. 60</ref> Colliers resided in huts laid out in a circle and framed by wood, insulated later on with mud, leaves, and dirt. There was oftentimes a large stone hearth or fireplace in the corner used for cooking and heating.<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<references /><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
* "Agriculture andrRural economy – Charcoal → ." The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project. Ann Arbor: Michigan Publishing, University of Michigan Library, 2010. http://hdl.handle.net/2027/spo.did2222.0001.346 (accessed [fill in today's date in the form April 18, 2009 and remove square brackets]). Originally published as "Agriculture et économie rustique – Charbon de bois," Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, vol. 1 (plates) (Paris, 1762).<br />
<br />
* Jones, Claude A. 1976. “Making Charcoal at Jacobsburg.” In Slate Belt Bicentennial Heritage, edited by Marjorie May, Maryann Repsher, Robert R. Saltern, Gordon E. Wilson, and Albert M. Toth, 32–33. Heritage Committee of the Slate Belt Bicentennial Commission.<br />
<br />
* Straka, Thomas J., and Wayne C. Ramer. 2010. “History on the Road: Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site.” Forest History Today Spring/Fall: 58–62. https://foresthistory.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/2010_History-on-Road.pdf<br />
<br />
* Straka, Thomas J.. 2014. "Historic Charcoal Production in the US and Forest Depletion: Development of Production Parameters." Advances in Historical Studies: 104-114. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ahs.2014.32010<br />
<br />
* Wagner, Van. 2008. Fire the Pit- Charcoal Production in Pennsylvania. 4 vols. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RxW7g3IwD1k ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xVE_7hMLMZU ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=88FbebFElaY ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ghj2p9rrUmM.</div>Dmgriederhttps://wiki.ironallentownpa.org/index.php?title=Charcoal_production&diff=83Charcoal production2018-09-09T17:33:39Z<p>Dmgrieder: /* Collier Life */</p>
<hr />
<div>In nineteenth century Pennsylvania, charcoal was produced primarily to fuel [[iron production]]. Charcoal is the result of the destructive distillation of wood to yield a fuel that is primarily carbon. In the 19th century, when iron production was at its peak, the demand for charcoal as fuel for furnaces had an impact on forests. As a result, the charcoal industry was one of the first to think about sustainability and forestry.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Types of Wood==<br />
While most types of wood can become charcoal, hard woods generally produced the best charcoal. Trees like oak, hickory, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chestnut chestnut], and elm were greatly preferred to softer woods, like gum and poplar.<br />
However, heavier hardwood requires a longer burning so sometimes a mixture of hardwood and softwood was the most effective. The condition of wood was important to the quality of the charcoal output. Knots in the wood, decay, and moisture negatively impact carbonization. <br />
<br />
==Sustainability==<br />
The need for charcoal in the iron industry created a significant demand for wood and a great deal of trees were chopped down for its production. The average output of furnaces between 1750 and 1800 was 100 5o 400 tons of pig iron per year. This required 200 - 400 bushels of charcoal and 50 acres of trees to produce that amount. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 105.</ref> Even though the increased efficiency of furnaces decreased the necessary amount of charcoal, increased production required 150 acres of wood by 1850 and 1,400 acres by 1900. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 106.</ref><br />
<br />
==Making the Hearth==<br />
Charcoal hearths require a large flat area.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref> They are often placed on hillsides to facilitate dirt movement and are usually round. In the center of the hearth, a triangular chimney is made from stacked wood. In the chimney, a large stick called the Fagan pole is inserted. The Fagan pole is used to mark the center of the pit and can be also be removed to provide drought during the process.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref><br />
<br />
==Piling the Wood==<br />
After making the chimney and the pole, the collier leans pieces of hardwood around the chimney. Hardwood was the preferred type of wood to use in charcoal production because it was denser and therefore more conducive to the iron-making process.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 59.</ref><br />
<br />
==Covering the Wood==<br />
The wood in the hearth is first covered with a layer of leaves or straw. Then, that is covered with dirt. The leaves act as a barrier between the wood and the dirt, helping to ensure even charring of the wood.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref><br />
<br />
==Igniting the Wood==<br />
Charcoal hearths were likely lit at the top and burned downwards. <ref>Straka, 2014, pg. 107.</ref> To ignite the wood, kindling wood is put up to the top of the the chimney. Then, hot coals are dropped into the chimney and the opening is covered with a piece called the "bridgen." The bridgen is then covered with leaves and straw.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 2.</ref><br />
<br />
==Ending the Burn==<br />
The burn was ended before all the charcoal was finished burning because this helped Colliers maximize production.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 4.</ref><br />
<br />
==Removing the Charcoal==<br />
To remove the finished charcoal, colliers used a large rake with long times. The tines ensure that the pieces of charcoal are dragged through the dirt on their way out of the hearth. This makes sure that no fires flare up and destroy the charcoal.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 4.</ref><br />
<br />
==Sustainability==<br />
The need for charcoal in the iron industry created a significant demand for wood and a great deal of trees were chopped down for its production. The average output of furnaces between 1750 and 1800 was 100 5o 400 tons of pig iron per year. This required 200 - 400 bushels of charcoal and 50 acres of trees to produce that amount. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 105.</ref> Even though the increased efficiency of furnaces decreased the necessary amount of charcoal, increased production required 150 acres of wood by 1850 and 1,400 acres by 1900. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 106.</ref><br />
Since forests regenerated at different rates, this impacted sustainability. In the Western United States, woodlands took decades to regrow to maturity so woodlands could be depleted in a decade. On the other hand, Eastern furnaces were some of the first to manage forests to ensure a sustainable yield. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 111.</ref><br />
Several early proponents of sustainable forestry were involved in the making of charcoal, like Bernhard E. Fernow, the manager of the Lehigh Furnace from 1879 to 1883. He advocated for coppicing of wood and protection from fire and cattle grazing to speed up regrowth of forest used for charcoal.<br />
<br />
==Charcoal v. Coal==<br />
The transition to coal as the primary fuel for furnaces began around 1840, but in 1859 around three-quarters of furnaces in America (particularly in Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York) still primarily used charcoal. Charcoal remained a source of fuel in some places until 1945. <br />
<br />
Charcoal tended to produce a higher quality of iron than coal, partially because of its density. Iron made from charcoal had a "fine grain" compared to iron made by coal and maintained a better<br />
cutting edge.<br />
<br />
==Collier Life==<br />
The public's general impression of Colliers was that they were dirty and uncivilized. The collier profession, though, was not one for the faint of heart, as great skill was required in order to successfully maintain multiple charcoal hearths at one time for months on end. <ref>Straka and Wayne 2010, p. 60</ref> Living alone, or occasionally with a son or friend, colliers couldn't afford to lose concentration or dedication for even one moment, as the slightest wayward breeze or hole in the charcoal hearth could cause irreparable damage. <ref>Fire the Pit, youtube</ref> This profession required almost constant twenty-four-hour surveillance of the hearths (https://www.nps.gov/media/video/view.htm?id=FB3FA03A-1DD8-B71C-071149ADB08DBD2E). The most dangerous job of a collier was called ("jumping the pit.") This crucial job required a collier to climb up onto the hearth and pack down the dirt as best they could. If anything went awry, they risked falling into the smoldering charcoal fire. <ref>Straka and Wayne 2010, p. 60</ref> Colliers resided in huts laid out in a circle and framed by wood, insulated later on with mud, leaves, and dirt. There was oftentimes a large stone hearth or fireplace in the corner used for cooking and heating.<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<references /><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
* "Agriculture andrRural economy – Charcoal → ." The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project. Ann Arbor: Michigan Publishing, University of Michigan Library, 2010. http://hdl.handle.net/2027/spo.did2222.0001.346 (accessed [fill in today's date in the form April 18, 2009 and remove square brackets]). Originally published as "Agriculture et économie rustique – Charbon de bois," Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, vol. 1 (plates) (Paris, 1762).<br />
<br />
* Jones, Claude A. 1976. “Making Charcoal at Jacobsburg.” In Slate Belt Bicentennial Heritage, edited by Marjorie May, Maryann Repsher, Robert R. Saltern, Gordon E. Wilson, and Albert M. Toth, 32–33. Heritage Committee of the Slate Belt Bicentennial Commission.<br />
<br />
* Straka, Thomas J., and Wayne C. Ramer. 2010. “History on the Road: Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site.” Forest History Today Spring/Fall: 58–62. https://foresthistory.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/2010_History-on-Road.pdf<br />
<br />
* Straka, Thomas J.. 2014. "Historic Charcoal Production in the US and Forest Depletion: Development of Production Parameters." Advances in Historical Studies: 104-114. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ahs.2014.32010<br />
<br />
* Wagner, Van. 2008. Fire the Pit- Charcoal Production in Pennsylvania. 4 vols. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RxW7g3IwD1k ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xVE_7hMLMZU ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=88FbebFElaY ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ghj2p9rrUmM.</div>Dmgriederhttps://wiki.ironallentownpa.org/index.php?title=Charcoal_production&diff=82Charcoal production2018-09-09T17:33:02Z<p>Dmgrieder: /* Collier Life */</p>
<hr />
<div>In nineteenth century Pennsylvania, charcoal was produced primarily to fuel [[iron production]]. Charcoal is the result of the destructive distillation of wood to yield a fuel that is primarily carbon. In the 19th century, when iron production was at its peak, the demand for charcoal as fuel for furnaces had an impact on forests. As a result, the charcoal industry was one of the first to think about sustainability and forestry.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Types of Wood==<br />
While most types of wood can become charcoal, hard woods generally produced the best charcoal. Trees like oak, hickory, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chestnut chestnut], and elm were greatly preferred to softer woods, like gum and poplar.<br />
However, heavier hardwood requires a longer burning so sometimes a mixture of hardwood and softwood was the most effective. The condition of wood was important to the quality of the charcoal output. Knots in the wood, decay, and moisture negatively impact carbonization. <br />
<br />
==Sustainability==<br />
The need for charcoal in the iron industry created a significant demand for wood and a great deal of trees were chopped down for its production. The average output of furnaces between 1750 and 1800 was 100 5o 400 tons of pig iron per year. This required 200 - 400 bushels of charcoal and 50 acres of trees to produce that amount. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 105.</ref> Even though the increased efficiency of furnaces decreased the necessary amount of charcoal, increased production required 150 acres of wood by 1850 and 1,400 acres by 1900. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 106.</ref><br />
<br />
==Making the Hearth==<br />
Charcoal hearths require a large flat area.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref> They are often placed on hillsides to facilitate dirt movement and are usually round. In the center of the hearth, a triangular chimney is made from stacked wood. In the chimney, a large stick called the Fagan pole is inserted. The Fagan pole is used to mark the center of the pit and can be also be removed to provide drought during the process.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref><br />
<br />
==Piling the Wood==<br />
After making the chimney and the pole, the collier leans pieces of hardwood around the chimney. Hardwood was the preferred type of wood to use in charcoal production because it was denser and therefore more conducive to the iron-making process.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 59.</ref><br />
<br />
==Covering the Wood==<br />
The wood in the hearth is first covered with a layer of leaves or straw. Then, that is covered with dirt. The leaves act as a barrier between the wood and the dirt, helping to ensure even charring of the wood.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref><br />
<br />
==Igniting the Wood==<br />
Charcoal hearths were likely lit at the top and burned downwards. <ref>Straka, 2014, pg. 107.</ref> To ignite the wood, kindling wood is put up to the top of the the chimney. Then, hot coals are dropped into the chimney and the opening is covered with a piece called the "bridgen." The bridgen is then covered with leaves and straw.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 2.</ref><br />
<br />
==Ending the Burn==<br />
The burn was ended before all the charcoal was finished burning because this helped Colliers maximize production.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 4.</ref><br />
<br />
==Removing the Charcoal==<br />
To remove the finished charcoal, colliers used a large rake with long times. The tines ensure that the pieces of charcoal are dragged through the dirt on their way out of the hearth. This makes sure that no fires flare up and destroy the charcoal.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 4.</ref><br />
<br />
==Sustainability==<br />
The need for charcoal in the iron industry created a significant demand for wood and a great deal of trees were chopped down for its production. The average output of furnaces between 1750 and 1800 was 100 5o 400 tons of pig iron per year. This required 200 - 400 bushels of charcoal and 50 acres of trees to produce that amount. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 105.</ref> Even though the increased efficiency of furnaces decreased the necessary amount of charcoal, increased production required 150 acres of wood by 1850 and 1,400 acres by 1900. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 106.</ref><br />
Since forests regenerated at different rates, this impacted sustainability. In the Western United States, woodlands took decades to regrow to maturity so woodlands could be depleted in a decade. On the other hand, Eastern furnaces were some of the first to manage forests to ensure a sustainable yield. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 111.</ref><br />
Several early proponents of sustainable forestry were involved in the making of charcoal, like Bernhard E. Fernow, the manager of the Lehigh Furnace from 1879 to 1883. He advocated for coppicing of wood and protection from fire and cattle grazing to speed up regrowth of forest used for charcoal.<br />
<br />
==Charcoal v. Coal==<br />
The transition to coal as the primary fuel for furnaces began around 1840, but in 1859 around three-quarters of furnaces in America (particularly in Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York) still primarily used charcoal. Charcoal remained a source of fuel in some places until 1945. <br />
<br />
Charcoal tended to produce a higher quality of iron than coal, partially because of its density. Iron made from charcoal had a "fine grain" compared to iron made by coal and maintained a better<br />
cutting edge.<br />
<br />
==Collier Life==<br />
The public's general impression of Colliers was that they were dirty and uncivilized. The collier profession, though, was not one for the faint of heart, as great skill was required in order to successfully maintain multiple charcoal hearths at one time for months on end. <ref>Straka and Wayne 2010, p. 60</ref> Living alone, or occasionally with a son or friend, colliers couldn't afford to lose concentration or dedication for even one moment, as the slightest wayward breeze or hole in the charcoal hearth could cause irreparable damage. <ref>Fire the Pit, youtube</ref> This profession required almost constant twenty-four-hour surveillance of the hearths (https://www.nps.gov/media/video/view.htm?id=FB3FA03A-1DD8-B71C-071149ADB08DBD2E). The most dangerous job of a collier was called "jumping the pit."This crucial job required a collier to climb up onto the hearth and pack down the dirt as best they could. If anything went awry, they risked falling into the smoldering charcoal fire. <ref>Straka and Wayne 2010, p. 60</ref> Colliers resided in huts laid out in a circle and framed by wood, insulated later on with mud, leaves, and dirt. There was oftentimes a large stone hearth or fireplace in the corner used for cooking and heating.<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<references /><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
* "Agriculture andrRural economy – Charcoal → ." The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project. Ann Arbor: Michigan Publishing, University of Michigan Library, 2010. http://hdl.handle.net/2027/spo.did2222.0001.346 (accessed [fill in today's date in the form April 18, 2009 and remove square brackets]). Originally published as "Agriculture et économie rustique – Charbon de bois," Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, vol. 1 (plates) (Paris, 1762).<br />
<br />
* Jones, Claude A. 1976. “Making Charcoal at Jacobsburg.” In Slate Belt Bicentennial Heritage, edited by Marjorie May, Maryann Repsher, Robert R. Saltern, Gordon E. Wilson, and Albert M. Toth, 32–33. Heritage Committee of the Slate Belt Bicentennial Commission.<br />
<br />
* Straka, Thomas J., and Wayne C. Ramer. 2010. “History on the Road: Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site.” Forest History Today Spring/Fall: 58–62. https://foresthistory.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/2010_History-on-Road.pdf<br />
<br />
* Straka, Thomas J.. 2014. "Historic Charcoal Production in the US and Forest Depletion: Development of Production Parameters." Advances in Historical Studies: 104-114. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ahs.2014.32010<br />
<br />
* Wagner, Van. 2008. Fire the Pit- Charcoal Production in Pennsylvania. 4 vols. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RxW7g3IwD1k ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xVE_7hMLMZU ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=88FbebFElaY ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ghj2p9rrUmM.</div>Dmgriederhttps://wiki.ironallentownpa.org/index.php?title=Charcoal_production&diff=80Charcoal production2018-09-09T17:29:59Z<p>Dmgrieder: /* Types of Wood */</p>
<hr />
<div>In nineteenth century Pennsylvania, charcoal was produced primarily to fuel [[iron production]]. Charcoal is the result of the destructive distillation of wood to yield a fuel that is primarily carbon. In the 19th century, when iron production was at its peak, the demand for charcoal as fuel for furnaces had an impact on forests. As a result, the charcoal industry was one of the first to think about sustainability and forestry.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Types of Wood==<br />
While most types of wood can become charcoal, hard woods generally produced the best charcoal. Trees like oak, hickory, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chestnut chestnut], and elm were greatly preferred to softer woods, like gum and poplar.<br />
However, heavier hardwood requires a longer burning so sometimes a mixture of hardwood and softwood was the most effective. The condition of wood was important to the quality of the charcoal output. Knots in the wood, decay, and moisture negatively impact carbonization. <br />
<br />
==Sustainability==<br />
The need for charcoal in the iron industry created a significant demand for wood and a great deal of trees were chopped down for its production. The average output of furnaces between 1750 and 1800 was 100 5o 400 tons of pig iron per year. This required 200 - 400 bushels of charcoal and 50 acres of trees to produce that amount. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 105.</ref> Even though the increased efficiency of furnaces decreased the necessary amount of charcoal, increased production required 150 acres of wood by 1850 and 1,400 acres by 1900. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 106.</ref><br />
<br />
==Making the Hearth==<br />
Charcoal hearths require a large flat area.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref> They are often placed on hillsides to facilitate dirt movement and are usually round. In the center of the hearth, a triangular chimney is made from stacked wood. In the chimney, a large stick called the Fagan pole is inserted. The Fagan pole is used to mark the center of the pit and can be also be removed to provide drought during the process.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref><br />
<br />
==Piling the Wood==<br />
After making the chimney and the pole, the collier leans pieces of hardwood around the chimney. Hardwood was the preferred type of wood to use in charcoal production because it was denser and therefore more conducive to the iron-making process.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 59.</ref><br />
<br />
==Covering the Wood==<br />
The wood in the hearth is first covered with a layer of leaves or straw. Then, that is covered with dirt. The leaves act as a barrier between the wood and the dirt, helping to ensure even charring of the wood.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref><br />
<br />
==Igniting the Wood==<br />
Charcoal hearths were likely lit at the top and burned downwards. <ref>Straka, 2014, pg. 107.</ref> To ignite the wood, kindling wood is put up to the top of the the chimney. Then, hot coals are dropped into the chimney and the opening is covered with a piece called the "bridgen." The bridgen is then covered with leaves and straw.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 2.</ref><br />
<br />
==Ending the Burn==<br />
The burn was ended before all the charcoal was finished burning because this helped Colliers maximize production.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 4.</ref><br />
<br />
==Removing the Charcoal==<br />
To remove the finished charcoal, colliers used a large rake with long times. The tines ensure that the pieces of charcoal are dragged through the dirt on their way out of the hearth. This makes sure that no fires flare up and destroy the charcoal.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 4.</ref><br />
<br />
==Sustainability==<br />
The need for charcoal in the iron industry created a significant demand for wood and a great deal of trees were chopped down for its production. The average output of furnaces between 1750 and 1800 was 100 5o 400 tons of pig iron per year. This required 200 - 400 bushels of charcoal and 50 acres of trees to produce that amount. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 105.</ref> Even though the increased efficiency of furnaces decreased the necessary amount of charcoal, increased production required 150 acres of wood by 1850 and 1,400 acres by 1900. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 106.</ref><br />
Since forests regenerated at different rates, this impacted sustainability. In the Western United States, woodlands took decades to regrow to maturity so woodlands could be depleted in a decade. On the other hand, Eastern furnaces were some of the first to manage forests to ensure a sustainable yield. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 111.</ref><br />
Several early proponents of sustainable forestry were involved in the making of charcoal, like Bernhard E. Fernow, the manager of the Lehigh Furnace from 1879 to 1883. He advocated for coppicing of wood and protection from fire and cattle grazing to speed up regrowth of forest used for charcoal.<br />
<br />
==Charcoal v. Coal==<br />
The transition to coal as the primary fuel for furnaces began around 1840, but in 1859 around three-quarters of furnaces in America (particularly in Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York) still primarily used charcoal. Charcoal remained a source of fuel in some places until 1945. <br />
<br />
Charcoal tended to produce a higher quality of iron than coal, partially because of its density. Iron made from charcoal had a "fine grain" compared to iron made by coal and maintained a better<br />
cutting edge.<br />
<br />
==Collier Life==<br />
The public's general impression of Colliers was that they were dirty and uncivilized. The collier profession, though, was not one for the faint of heart, as great skill was required in order to successfully maintain multiple charcoal hearths at one time for months on end. <ref>Straka and Wayne 2010, p. 60</ref> Living alone, or occasionally with a son or friend, colliers couldn't afford to lose concentration or dedication for even one moment, as the slightest wayward breeze or hole in the charcoal hearth could cause irreparable damage. <ref>Fire the Pit, youtube</ref> This profession required almost constant twenty-four-hour surveillance of the hearths. The most dangerous job of a collier was called "jumping the pit."This crucial job required a collier to climb up onto the hearth and pack down the dirt as best they could. If anything went awry, they risked falling into the smoldering charcoal fire. <ref>Straka and Wayne 2010, p. 60</ref> Colliers resided in huts laid out in a circle and framed by wood, insulated later on with mud, leaves, and dirt. There was oftentimes a large stone hearth or fireplace in the corner used for cooking and heating.<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<references /><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
* "Agriculture andrRural economy – Charcoal → ." The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project. Ann Arbor: Michigan Publishing, University of Michigan Library, 2010. http://hdl.handle.net/2027/spo.did2222.0001.346 (accessed [fill in today's date in the form April 18, 2009 and remove square brackets]). Originally published as "Agriculture et économie rustique – Charbon de bois," Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, vol. 1 (plates) (Paris, 1762).<br />
<br />
* Jones, Claude A. 1976. “Making Charcoal at Jacobsburg.” In Slate Belt Bicentennial Heritage, edited by Marjorie May, Maryann Repsher, Robert R. Saltern, Gordon E. Wilson, and Albert M. Toth, 32–33. Heritage Committee of the Slate Belt Bicentennial Commission.<br />
<br />
* Straka, Thomas J., and Wayne C. Ramer. 2010. “History on the Road: Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site.” Forest History Today Spring/Fall: 58–62. https://foresthistory.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/2010_History-on-Road.pdf<br />
<br />
* Wagner, Van. 2008. Fire the Pit- Charcoal Production in Pennsylvania. 4 vols. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RxW7g3IwD1k ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xVE_7hMLMZU ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=88FbebFElaY ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ghj2p9rrUmM.</div>Dmgriederhttps://wiki.ironallentownpa.org/index.php?title=Charcoal_production&diff=78Charcoal production2018-09-09T17:27:15Z<p>Dmgrieder: /* Collier Life */</p>
<hr />
<div>In nineteenth century Pennsylvania, charcoal was produced primarily to fuel [[iron production]]. Charcoal is the result of the destructive distillation of wood to yield a fuel that is primarily carbon. In the 19th century, when iron production was at its peak, the demand for charcoal as fuel for furnaces had an impact on forests. As a result, the charcoal industry was one of the first to think about sustainability and forestry.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Types of Wood==<br />
While most types of wood can become charcoal, hard woods generally produced the best charcoal. Trees like oak, hickory, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chestnut chestnut], and elm were greatly preferred to softer woods, like gum and poplar.<br />
However, heavier hardwood requires a longer burning so sometimes a mixture of hardwood and softwood was the most effective. The condition of wood was important to the quality of the charcoal output. Knots in the wood, decay, and moisture negatively impact carbonization. ==Sustainability==<br />
The need for charcoal in the iron industry created a significant demand for wood and a great deal of trees were chopped down for its production. The average output of furnaces between 1750 and 1800 was 100 5o 400 tons of pig iron per year. This required 200 - 400 bushels of charcoal and 50 acres of trees to produce that amount. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 105.</ref> Even though the increased efficiency of furnaces decreased the necessary amount of charcoal, increased production required 150 acres of wood by 1850 and 1,400 acres by 1900. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 106.</ref><br />
<br />
==Making the Hearth==<br />
Charcoal hearths require a large flat area.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref> They are often placed on hillsides to facilitate dirt movement and are usually round. In the center of the hearth, a triangular chimney is made from stacked wood. In the chimney, a large stick called the Fagan pole is inserted. The Fagan pole is used to mark the center of the pit and can be also be removed to provide drought during the process.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref><br />
<br />
==Piling the Wood==<br />
After making the chimney and the pole, the collier leans pieces of hardwood around the chimney. Hardwood was the preferred type of wood to use in charcoal production because it was denser and therefore more conducive to the iron-making process.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 59.</ref><br />
<br />
==Covering the Wood==<br />
The wood in the hearth is first covered with a layer of leaves or straw. Then, that is covered with dirt. The leaves act as a barrier between the wood and the dirt, helping to ensure even charring of the wood.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref><br />
<br />
==Igniting the Wood==<br />
Charcoal hearths were likely lit at the top and burned downwards. <ref>Straka, 2014, pg. 107.</ref> To ignite the wood, kindling wood is put up to the top of the the chimney. Then, hot coals are dropped into the chimney and the opening is covered with a piece called the "bridgen." The bridgen is then covered with leaves and straw.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 2.</ref><br />
<br />
==Ending the Burn==<br />
The burn was ended before all the charcoal was finished burning because this helped Colliers maximize production.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 4.</ref><br />
<br />
==Removing the Charcoal==<br />
To remove the finished charcoal, colliers used a large rake with long times. The tines ensure that the pieces of charcoal are dragged through the dirt on their way out of the hearth. This makes sure that no fires flare up and destroy the charcoal.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 4.</ref><br />
<br />
==Sustainability==<br />
The need for charcoal in the iron industry created a significant demand for wood and a great deal of trees were chopped down for its production. The average output of furnaces between 1750 and 1800 was 100 5o 400 tons of pig iron per year. This required 200 - 400 bushels of charcoal and 50 acres of trees to produce that amount. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 105.</ref> Even though the increased efficiency of furnaces decreased the necessary amount of charcoal, increased production required 150 acres of wood by 1850 and 1,400 acres by 1900. <ref>Straka 2014, pg. 106.</ref><br />
<br />
Several early proponents of sustainable forestry were involved in the making of charcoal, like Bernhard E. Fernow, the manager of the Lehigh Furnace from 1879 to 1883. He advocated for coppicing of wood and protection from fire and cattle grazing to speed up regrowth of forest used for charcoal.<br />
<br />
==Charcoal v. Coal==<br />
The transition to coal as the primary fuel for furnaces began around 1840, but in 1859 around three-quarters of furnaces in America (particularly in Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York) still primarily used charcoal. Charcoal remained a source of fuel in some places until 1945. <br />
<br />
Charcoal tended to produce a higher quality of iron than coal, partially because of its density. Iron made from charcoal had a "fine grain" compared to iron made by coal and maintained a better<br />
cutting edge.<br />
<br />
==Collier Life==<br />
The public's general impression of Colliers was that they were dirty and uncivilized. The collier profession, though, was not one for the faint of heart, as great skill was required in order to successfully maintain multiple charcoal hearths at one time for months on end. <ref>Straka and Wayne 2010, p. 60</ref> Living alone, or occasionally with a son or friend, colliers couldn't afford to lose concentration or dedication for even one moment, as the slightest wayward breeze or hole in the charcoal hearth could cause irreparable damage. <ref>Fire the Pit, youtube</ref> This profession required almost constant twenty-four-hour surveillance of the hearths. The most dangerous job of a collier was called "jumping the pit."This crucial job required a collier to climb up onto the hearth and pack down the dirt as best they could. If anything went awry, they risked falling into the smoldering charcoal fire. <ref>Straka and Wayne 2010, p. 60</ref> Colliers resided in huts laid out in a circle and framed by wood, insulated later on with mud, leaves, and dirt. There was oftentimes a large stone hearth or fireplace in the corner used for cooking and heating.<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<references /><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
* "Agriculture andrRural economy – Charcoal → ." The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project. Ann Arbor: Michigan Publishing, University of Michigan Library, 2010. http://hdl.handle.net/2027/spo.did2222.0001.346 (accessed [fill in today's date in the form April 18, 2009 and remove square brackets]). Originally published as "Agriculture et économie rustique – Charbon de bois," Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, vol. 1 (plates) (Paris, 1762).<br />
<br />
* Jones, Claude A. 1976. “Making Charcoal at Jacobsburg.” In Slate Belt Bicentennial Heritage, edited by Marjorie May, Maryann Repsher, Robert R. Saltern, Gordon E. Wilson, and Albert M. Toth, 32–33. Heritage Committee of the Slate Belt Bicentennial Commission.<br />
<br />
* Straka, Thomas J., and Wayne C. Ramer. 2010. “History on the Road: Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site.” Forest History Today Spring/Fall: 58–62. https://foresthistory.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/2010_History-on-Road.pdf<br />
<br />
* Wagner, Van. 2008. Fire the Pit- Charcoal Production in Pennsylvania. 4 vols. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RxW7g3IwD1k ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xVE_7hMLMZU ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=88FbebFElaY ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ghj2p9rrUmM.</div>Dmgriederhttps://wiki.ironallentownpa.org/index.php?title=Charcoal_production&diff=75Charcoal production2018-09-09T17:21:26Z<p>Dmgrieder: /* Collier Life */</p>
<hr />
<div>In nineteenth century Pennsylvania, charcoal was produced primarily to fuel [[iron production]]. Charcoal is the result of the destructive distillation of wood to yield a fuel that is primarily carbon. In the 19th century, when iron production was at its peak, the demand for charcoal as fuel for furnaces had an impact on forests. As a result, the charcoal industry was one of the first to think about sustainability and forestry.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Types of Wood==<br />
While most types of wood can become charcoal, hard woods generally produced the best charcoal. Trees like oak, hickory, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chestnut chestnut], and elm were greatly preferred to softer woods, like gum and poplar.<br />
However, heavier hardwood requires a longer burning so sometimes a mixture of hardwood and softwood was the most effective. The condition of wood was important to the quality of the charcoal output. Knots in the wood, decay, and moisture negatively impact carbonization. ==Sustainability==<br />
The need for charcoal in the iron industry created a significant demand for wood and a great deal of trees were chopped down for its production. The average output of furnaces between 1750 and 1800 was 100 5o 400 tons of pig iron per year. This required 200 - 400 bushels of charcoal and 50 acres of trees to produce that amount. <ref>Straka and Ramer 2014, p. 105.</ref> Even though the increased efficiency of furnaces decreased the necessary amount of charcoal, increased production required 150 acres of wood by 1850 and 1,400 acres by 1900. <ref>Straka and Ramer 2014, pg. 106.</ref><br />
<br />
==Making the Hearth==<br />
Charcoal hearths require a large flat area.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref> They are often placed on hillsides to facilitate dirt movement and are usually round. In the center of the hearth, a triangular chimney is made from stacked wood. In the chimney, a large stick called the Fagan pole is inserted. The Fagan pole is used to mark the center of the pit and can be also be removed to provide drought during the process.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref><br />
<br />
==Piling the Wood==<br />
After making the chimney and the pole, the collier leans pieces of hardwood around the chimney. Hardwood was the preferred type of wood to use in charcoal production because it was denser and therefore more conducive to the iron-making process.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 59.</ref><br />
<br />
==Covering the Wood==<br />
The wood in the hearth is first covered with a layer of leaves or straw. Then, that is covered with dirt. The leaves act as a barrier between the wood and the dirt, helping to ensure even charring of the wood.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref><br />
<br />
==Igniting the Wood==<br />
Charcoal hearths were likely lit at the top and burned downwards. <ref>Straka, 2014, pg. 107.</ref> To ignite the wood, kindling wood is put up to the top of the the chimney. Then, hot coals are dropped into the chimney and the opening is covered with a piece called the "bridgen." The bridgen is then covered with leaves and straw.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 2.</ref><br />
<br />
==Ending the Burn==<br />
The burn was ended before all the charcoal was finished burning because this helped Colliers maximize production.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 4.</ref><br />
<br />
==Removing the Charcoal==<br />
To remove the finished charcoal, colliers used a large rake with long times. The tines ensure that the pieces of charcoal are dragged through the dirt on their way out of the hearth. This makes sure that no fires flare up and destroy the charcoal.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 4.</ref><br />
<br />
==Sustainability==<br />
The need for charcoal in the iron industry created a significant demand for wood and a great deal of trees were chopped down for its production. The average output of furnaces between 1750 and 1800 was 100 5o 400 tons of pig iron per year. This required 200 - 400 bushels of charcoal and 50 acres of trees to produce that amount. <ref>Straka and Ramer 2014, p. 105.</ref> Even though the increased efficiency of furnaces decreased the necessary amount of charcoal, increased production required 150 acres of wood by 1850 and 1,400 acres by 1900. <ref>Straka and Ramer 2014, pg. 106.</ref><br />
<br />
Several early proponents of sustainable forestry were involved in the making of charcoal, like Bernhard E. Fernow, the manager of the Lehigh Furnace from 1879 to 1883. He advocated for coppicing of wood and protection from fire and cattle grazing to speed up regrowth of forest used for charcoal.<br />
<br />
==Charcoal v. Coal==<br />
The transition to coal as the primary fuel for furnaces began around 1840, but in 1859 around three-quarters of furnaces in America (particularly in Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York) still primarily used charcoal. Charcoal remained a source of fuel in some places until 1945. <br />
<br />
Charcoal tended to produce a higher quality of iron than coal, partially because of its density. Iron made from charcoal had a "fine grain" compared to iron made by coal and maintained a better<br />
cutting edge.<br />
<br />
==Collier Life==<br />
The public's general impression of Colliers was that they were dirty and uncivilized. The collier profession, though, was not one for the faint of heart, as great skill was required in order to successfully maintain multiple charcoal hearths at one time for months on end. <ref>Straka and Wayne 2010, p. 60</ref>Living alone, or occasionally with a son or friend, colliers couldn't afford to lose concentration or dedication for even one moment, as the slightest wayward breeze or hole in the charcoal hearth could cause irreparable damage. This profession required almost constant twenty-four-hour surveillance of the hearths. The most dangerous job of a collier was called "jumping the pit."This crucial job required a collier to climb up onto the hearth and pack down the dirt as best they could. If anything went awry, they risked falling into the smoldering charcoal fire. Colliers resided in huts laid out in a circle and framed by wood, insulated later on with mud, leaves, and dirt. There was oftentimes a large stone hearth or fireplace in the corner used for cooking and heating.<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<references /><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
* "Agriculture andrRural economy – Charcoal → ." The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project. Ann Arbor: Michigan Publishing, University of Michigan Library, 2010. http://hdl.handle.net/2027/spo.did2222.0001.346 (accessed [fill in today's date in the form April 18, 2009 and remove square brackets]). Originally published as "Agriculture et économie rustique – Charbon de bois," Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, vol. 1 (plates) (Paris, 1762).<br />
<br />
* Jones, Claude A. 1976. “Making Charcoal at Jacobsburg.” In Slate Belt Bicentennial Heritage, edited by Marjorie May, Maryann Repsher, Robert R. Saltern, Gordon E. Wilson, and Albert M. Toth, 32–33. Heritage Committee of the Slate Belt Bicentennial Commission.<br />
<br />
* Straka, Thomas J., and Wayne C. Ramer. 2010. “History on the Road: Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site.” Forest History Today Spring/Fall: 58–62. https://foresthistory.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/2010_History-on-Road.pdf<br />
<br />
* Wagner, Van. 2008. Fire the Pit- Charcoal Production in Pennsylvania. 4 vols. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RxW7g3IwD1k ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xVE_7hMLMZU ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=88FbebFElaY ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ghj2p9rrUmM.</div>Dmgriederhttps://wiki.ironallentownpa.org/index.php?title=Charcoal_production&diff=49Charcoal production2018-09-05T12:00:46Z<p>Dmgrieder: /* Making the Hearth */</p>
<hr />
<div>In nineteenth century Pennsylvania, charcoal was produced primarily to fuel [[iron production]]. Charcoal is the result of the destructive distillation of wood to yield a fuel that is primarily carbon. In the 19th century, when iron production was at its peak, the demand for charcoal as fuel for furnaces had an impact on forests. As a result, the charcoal industry was one of the first to think about sustainability and forestry. <br />
<br />
==Types of Wood==<br />
Generally, hard woods produced the best charcoal. Trees like oak, hickory, chestnut, and elm were greatly preferred to softer woods, like gum and poplar.<br />
<br />
==Making the Hearth==<br />
Charcoal hearths require a large flat area. They are often placed on hillsides to facilitate dirt movement and are usually round. In the center of the hearth, a triangular chimney is made from stacked wood. In the chimney, a large stick called the Fagan pole is inserted. The Fagan pole is used to mark the center of the pit and can be also be used to gauge how far down in the pit the charring is taking place.<br />
<br />
==Piling the Wood==<br />
After making the chimney and the pole, the collier leans pieces of hardwood around the chimney. Hardwood was the preferred type of wood to use in charcoal production because it was denser and therefore more conducive to the iron-making process.<br />
<br />
==Covering the Wood==<br />
The wood in the hearth is first covered with a layer of leaves or straw. Then, that is covered with dirt. The leaves and straw act as a barrier between the wood and the dirt, helping to ensure even charring of the wood.<br />
<br />
==Igniting the Wood==<br />
To ignite the wood, kindling wood is put up to the top of the the chimney. Then, hot coals are dropped into the chimney and the opening is covered with a piece called the "bridgen." The bridgen is then covered with leaves and straw.<br />
<br />
==Ending the Burn==<br />
The burn was ended before all the charcoal was finished burning because this helped Colliers maximize production.<br />
<br />
==Removing the Charcoal==<br />
To remove the finished charcoal, colliers used a large rake with long times. The tines ensure that the pieces of charcoal are dragged through the dirt on their way out of the hearth. This makes sure that no fires flare up and destroy the charcoal.<br />
<br />
==Sustainability==<br />
The need for charcoal in the iron industry created a significant demand for wood and a great deal of trees were chopped down for its production. One furnace required about 5,000 cords of wood to run in a year. Several early proponents of sustainable forestry were involved in the making of charcoal, like Bernhard E. Fernow, the manager of the Lehigh Furnace from 1879 to 1883. He advocated for coppicing of wood and protection from fire and cattle grazing to speed up regrowth of forest used for charcoal.<br />
<br />
==Charcoal v. Coal==<br />
The transition to coal as the primary fuel for furnaces began around 1840, but in 1859 around three-quarters of furnaces in America (particularly in Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York) still primarily used charcoal. Charcoal remained a source of fuel in some places until 1945. <br />
<br />
Charcoal tended to produce a higher quality of iron than coal, partially because of its density. Iron made from charcoal had a "fine grain" compared to iron made by coal and maintained a better<br />
cutting edge.<br />
<br />
==Collier Life==<br />
The public's general impression of Colliers was that they were dirty and uncivilized. The collier profession, though, was not one for the faint of heart, as great skill was required in order to successfully maintain multiple charcoal hearths at one time for months on end. Living alone, or occasionally with a son or friend, colliers couldn't afford to lose concentration or dedication for even one moment, as the slightest wayward breeze or hole in the charcoal hearth could cause irreparable damage. This profession required almost constant twenty-four-hour surveillance of the hearths. The most dangerous job of a collier was called "jumping the pit."This crucial job required a collier to climb up onto the hearth and pack down the dirt as best they could. If anything went awry, they risked falling into the smoldering charcoal fire. Colliers resided in huts laid out in a circle and framed by wood, insulated later on with mud, leaves, and dirt. There was oftentimes a large stone hearth or fireplace in the corner used for cooking and heating. <br />
<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
* "Agriculture andrRural economy – Charcoal → ." The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project. Ann Arbor: Michigan Publishing, University of Michigan Library, 2010. http://hdl.handle.net/2027/spo.did2222.0001.346 (accessed [fill in today's date in the form April 18, 2009 and remove square brackets]). Originally published as "Agriculture et économie rustique – Charbon de bois," Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, vol. 1 (plates) (Paris, 1762).<br />
<br />
* Straka, Thomas J., and Wayne C. Ramer. 2010. “History on the Road: Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site.” Forest History Today Spring/Fall: 58–62.<br />
<br />
* Jones, Claude A. 1976. “Making Charcoal at Jacobsburg.” In Slate Belt Bicentennial Heritage, edited by Marjorie May, Maryann Repsher, Robert R. Saltern, Gordon E. Wilson, and Albert M. Toth, 32–33. Heritage Committee of the Slate Belt Bicentennial Commission.<br />
<br />
* Wagner, Van. 2008. Fire the Pit- Charcoal Production in Pennsylvania. 4 vols. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RxW7g3IwD1k ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xVE_7hMLMZU ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=88FbebFElaY ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ghj2p9rrUmM.</div>Dmgriederhttps://wiki.ironallentownpa.org/index.php?title=Charcoal_production&diff=48Charcoal production2018-09-05T11:52:13Z<p>Dmgrieder: </p>
<hr />
<div>In nineteenth century Pennsylvania, charcoal was produced primarily to fuel [[iron production]]. Charcoal is the result of the destructive distillation of wood to yield a fuel that is primarily carbon. In the 19th century, when iron production was at its peak, the demand for charcoal as fuel for furnaces had an impact on forests. As a result, the charcoal industry was one of the first to think about sustainability and forestry. <br />
<br />
==Types of Wood==<br />
Generally, hard woods produced the best charcoal. Trees like oak, hickory, chestnut, and elm were greatly preferred to softer woods, like gum and poplar.<br />
<br />
==Making the Hearth==<br />
Charcoal hearths require large flat area. They are often placed on hillsides to facilitate dirt movement and are usually round. In the center of the hearth, a triangular chimney is made from stacked wood. In the chimney, a large stick called the Fagan pole is inserted. The Fagan pole is used to mark the center of the pit and can be also be used to gauge how far down in the pit the charring is taking place.<br />
<br />
==Piling the Wood==<br />
After making the chimney and the pole, the collier leans pieces of hardwood around the chimney. Hardwood was the preferred type of wood to use in charcoal production because it was denser and therefore more conducive to the iron-making process.<br />
<br />
==Covering the Wood==<br />
The wood in the hearth is first covered with a layer of leaves or straw. Then, that is covered with dirt. The leaves and straw act as a barrier between the wood and the dirt, helping to ensure even charring of the wood.<br />
<br />
==Igniting the Wood==<br />
To ignite the wood, kindling wood is put up to the top of the the chimney. Then, hot coals are dropped into the chimney and the opening is covered with a piece called the "bridgen." The bridgen is then covered with leaves and straw.<br />
<br />
==Ending the Burn==<br />
The burn was ended before all the charcoal was finished burning because this helped Colliers maximize production.<br />
<br />
==Removing the Charcoal==<br />
To remove the finished charcoal, colliers used a large rake with long times. The tines ensure that the pieces of charcoal are dragged through the dirt on their way out of the hearth. This makes sure that no fires flare up and destroy the charcoal.<br />
<br />
==Sustainability==<br />
The need for charcoal in the iron industry created a significant demand for wood and a great deal of trees were chopped down for its production. One furnace required about 5,000 cords of wood to run in a year. Several early proponents of sustainable forestry were involved in the making of charcoal, like Bernhard E. Fernow, the manager of the Lehigh Furnace from 1879 to 1883. He advocated for coppicing of wood and protection from fire and cattle grazing to speed up regrowth of forest used for charcoal.<br />
<br />
==Charcoal v. Coal==<br />
The transition to coal as the primary fuel for furnaces began around 1840, but in 1859 around three-quarters of furnaces in America (particularly in Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York) still primarily used charcoal. Charcoal remained a source of fuel in some places until 1945. <br />
<br />
Charcoal tended to produce a higher quality of iron than coal, partially because of its density. Iron made from charcoal had a "fine grain" compared to iron made by coal and maintained a better<br />
cutting edge.<br />
<br />
==Collier Life==<br />
The public's general impression of Colliers was that they were dirty and uncivilized. The collier profession, though, was not one for the faint of heart, as great skill was required in order to successfully maintain multiple charcoal hearths at one time for months on end. Living alone, or occasionally with a son or friend, colliers couldn't afford to lose concentration or dedication for even one moment, as the slightest wayward breeze or hole in the charcoal hearth could cause irreparable damage. This profession required almost constant twenty-four-hour surveillance of the hearths. The most dangerous job of a collier was called "jumping the pit."This crucial job required a collier to climb up onto the hearth and pack down the dirt as best they could. If anything went awry, they risked falling into the smoldering charcoal fire. Colliers resided in huts laid out in a circle and framed by wood, insulated later on with mud, leaves, and dirt. There was oftentimes a large stone hearth or fireplace in the corner used for cooking and heating. <br />
<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
* "Agriculture andrRural economy – Charcoal → ." The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project. Ann Arbor: Michigan Publishing, University of Michigan Library, 2010. http://hdl.handle.net/2027/spo.did2222.0001.346 (accessed [fill in today's date in the form April 18, 2009 and remove square brackets]). Originally published as "Agriculture et économie rustique – Charbon de bois," Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, vol. 1 (plates) (Paris, 1762).<br />
<br />
* Straka, Thomas J., and Wayne C. Ramer. 2010. “History on the Road: Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site.” Forest History Today Spring/Fall: 58–62.<br />
<br />
* Jones, Claude A. 1976. “Making Charcoal at Jacobsburg.” In Slate Belt Bicentennial Heritage, edited by Marjorie May, Maryann Repsher, Robert R. Saltern, Gordon E. Wilson, and Albert M. Toth, 32–33. Heritage Committee of the Slate Belt Bicentennial Commission.<br />
<br />
* Wagner, Van. 2008. Fire the Pit- Charcoal Production in Pennsylvania. 4 vols. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RxW7g3IwD1k ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xVE_7hMLMZU ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=88FbebFElaY ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ghj2p9rrUmM.</div>Dmgrieder