Iron Allentown Wiki - User contributions [en]

Bernhard Fernow (1851-1923)

2020-10-13T13:26:06Z

Jakob.kidd: /* Yield of Wood and When to Cut It */

=Background=

Bernhard Fernow was born in the Prussian Province of Posen. In Prussia, Fernow spent a year in the Prussian forest service prior to studying at the University of Königsberg and the Royal Prussian Academy of Forestry at Münden<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernhard_Fernow</ref>. He emigrated to the United States in 1876 after marrying his wife Olivia Reynolds, who actively helped him in many of his later projects. Fernow worked various jobs up until 1878. During this year, he got the opportunity to manage 15,000 acres of woods in Pennsylvania which was primarily used to obtain charcoal<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernhard_Fernow</ref>. In 1886, Fernow was named the third Chief of the USDA's Division of Forestry of the United States until 1898<ref>Rines, George Edwin, ed. (1920). "Fernow, Bernhard Eduard". Encyclopedia Americana.</ref>.
During his time as chief his main policy goals were the establishment of a national forest system and the introduction of scientific forest management. Fernow produced many scientific reports to protect watersheds while working toward the creation of national forests <ref>Twight, B.W. 1990. Bernhard Fernow and Prussian forestry in America. Journal of Forestry 88(2):21-25</ref>. During the 1893 Chicago World's Fair, Fernow helped create forestry exhibits that generated much needed public support for the establishment of a Prussian inspired national forest system in the United States<ref>Twight, B.W. 1990. Bernhard Fernow and Prussian forestry in America. [[Journal of Forestry|J For]] 88(2):21-25</ref>. As head of the USDA's Forestry Division, Fernow helped create the Forest Reserve Act of 1891 and the Organic Act of 1897. After his time as Chief of the USDA's Division of Forestry came to an end, Fernow became the first dean of the New York State College of Forestry at Cornell. This was the first four-year forestry school in the United States. However, Fernow's time as dean of the school was not particularly fruitful. The program was shut down in 1903 by the New York State government as the program was unpopular due to its clear-cutting and the fires it caused<ref>Charles Z. Lincoln, ed. (1910) ''Messages from the Governors', vol. X, Albany, p. 555, cited in Colman, Gould P. (1963) ''Education & Agriculture, A History of the NYS College of Agriculture at Cornell University'', Cornell University Press, p.161.</ref><ref>Gove, B. 2005. Logging railroads of the Adirondacks. Syracuse University Press. pp. 176-181.</ref>. During this same time many wildfires were happening in the area due to the sparks from locomotive stacks landing on log stashes. Louis Marshall, an American constitution and civil-rights lawyer, branded locomotives as an "instrument of arson"<ref>Angus, Christopher.The extraordinary Adirondack journey of Clarence Petty: wilderness guide, pilot, and conservationist, p.17</ref>.Unfortunately, Bernhard Fernow was aware of this and continued to build this controversial railroad system that stretched 6 miles and was primarily used to transport wood<ref>en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernhard_Fernow</ref>. However, In 1907 Bernhard Fernow became the founding dean of the University of Toronto's Faculty of Forestry, this was Canadas first university school devoted to forest fire<ref>Hosmer, R.S. 1923. Dr. Fernow's life work. J Forest 21:320-323</ref>. To date, Fernow is known to be called the "father of professional forestry in the United States."

=Waste Places=
Fernow noticed that the bulk of American papers which recommended methods for planting forests did not account for places with poor growing conditions. These places were deemed to be "Waste Places" by Fernow. He describes these waste places as areas that will not grow grass's or any other crops<ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>. The locations of these areas were typically places with inadequate soil structure and/or had problems with water. Fernow describes these waste Places as unusable because they are either stony, too wet or too dry. Wet locations do not drain well enough, and dry areas can be too sandy for agricultural use <ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>. Furthermore, Fernow believed it was important to learn how to properly "forest" these areas because the interests of agriculture will ultimately confine forests to these places<ref>Fernow 1883, 153-154</ref>. His vision of forestry was different. In a letter addressed to fellow engineers he talks about poor forest management, and the effects on timber. He also predicted that if "recklessness, wastefulness, and ignorance" continue it would lead to timber "scarcity, high prices, and injurious influences on all industries using wood"<ref>Fernow 1885, 272-281</ref>. Fernow did indeed believe he had a solution for these waste places. He believed that by encouraging tree growth in these areas, they can, in time, become improved enough and will gain value and be sufficient enough to grow crops <ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>.

In One of Fernow’s writings, “Planting in Waste Places,” he describes the conditions of how the land needs to be in order to produce the most successful yield <ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>. According to Fernow, plots of land that are too arid, for example prairie’s, don't serve much of a purpose and land that is too wet won’t produce any good crops<ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>. He then goes on to describe an instrument that was extremely helpful in the planting of millions of young pines every year. This tool is made up of two parts: the shoe, which was made of iron with one rounded and one flat side, tapering towards the end, the shape a half cone, so that when two of these shoes placed together, with the flat sides, it would create a perfect cone. The second part which is located in the center of the shoe has a threaded hole to receive the handle. The handle consists of a five-eighths inch rod, three and one/half feet long, with a squarely set wood shaft <ref>Fernow 1883 155-156</ref>. At first glance the tool resembles a carrot dangling by a rope on a piece of wood. It is used by throwing the iron cone into the ground where the plant is to stand. A hole is made by moving the cone back and forth. The plant would then be placed within the hole that was created by using this instrument.

=Yield of Wood and When to Cut It=
The purpose of this article was to answer questions of how trees grow, ways in which tree growth can be encouraged, the best time to harvest trees, and information that should be considered in context to forest control<ref>Fernow, 1882, 19</ref>. Fernow addressed the idea of the best age for cutting the wood involved a mathematical calculation along with knowledge of the forest. Some of this knowledge included knowing when wood had hit its peak and had just started to decline<ref>Fernow, 1882, 22</ref>. He also characterized wood in two ways, "log-wood", "billets" and "brush" wood<ref>Fernow, 1882, 20</ref>. Fernow also made an observation which was that beech and spruce forests do not exhaust soil nutrients even over thousands of years of occupation<ref>Fernow, 1882, 25</ref>.

According to Fernow, the weight of charcoal, if properly prepared and housed, is practically a constant factor, since most charcoal is not used fresh, but rather used after weeks when it has absorbed almost all amounts of moisture (up to 10 to 15 per cent)<ref>Bernhard, 1882, 21</ref>. Because of this Fernow believed that charcoal should be sold by weight, not by the bushel since it had a relatively consistent weight<ref>Fernow, 1882, 21</ref>.
Fernow believed that a low yield of charcoal was due to the woodcutters. This is because woodcutters had to use a specific type of wood and a specific length of stick to cut in order to produce the highest quality and yield of charcoal<ref>Fernow, 1882, 19</ref>.

=Notes=

=References=
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1883. “Planting in Waste Places.” The American Journal of Forestry, January, 153–55.
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1882. “The Yield of Wood and When to Cut It.” Journal of the United States Association of Charcoal Iron Workers 3 (1): 19–26.
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1885. "Should our Charcoal in the Future Be Produced From Coppice or Timber Forest?" Journal of the United States Association of Charcoal Iron Workers 6: 272-281

Bernhard Fernow (1851-1923)

2020-10-13T13:25:31Z

Jakob.kidd: /* Yield of Wood and When to Cut It */

=Background=

Bernhard Fernow was born in the Prussian Province of Posen. In Prussia, Fernow spent a year in the Prussian forest service prior to studying at the University of Königsberg and the Royal Prussian Academy of Forestry at Münden<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernhard_Fernow</ref>. He emigrated to the United States in 1876 after marrying his wife Olivia Reynolds, who actively helped him in many of his later projects. Fernow worked various jobs up until 1878. During this year, he got the opportunity to manage 15,000 acres of woods in Pennsylvania which was primarily used to obtain charcoal<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernhard_Fernow</ref>. In 1886, Fernow was named the third Chief of the USDA's Division of Forestry of the United States until 1898<ref>Rines, George Edwin, ed. (1920). "Fernow, Bernhard Eduard". Encyclopedia Americana.</ref>.
During his time as chief his main policy goals were the establishment of a national forest system and the introduction of scientific forest management. Fernow produced many scientific reports to protect watersheds while working toward the creation of national forests <ref>Twight, B.W. 1990. Bernhard Fernow and Prussian forestry in America. Journal of Forestry 88(2):21-25</ref>. During the 1893 Chicago World's Fair, Fernow helped create forestry exhibits that generated much needed public support for the establishment of a Prussian inspired national forest system in the United States<ref>Twight, B.W. 1990. Bernhard Fernow and Prussian forestry in America. [[Journal of Forestry|J For]] 88(2):21-25</ref>. As head of the USDA's Forestry Division, Fernow helped create the Forest Reserve Act of 1891 and the Organic Act of 1897. After his time as Chief of the USDA's Division of Forestry came to an end, Fernow became the first dean of the New York State College of Forestry at Cornell. This was the first four-year forestry school in the United States. However, Fernow's time as dean of the school was not particularly fruitful. The program was shut down in 1903 by the New York State government as the program was unpopular due to its clear-cutting and the fires it caused<ref>Charles Z. Lincoln, ed. (1910) ''Messages from the Governors', vol. X, Albany, p. 555, cited in Colman, Gould P. (1963) ''Education & Agriculture, A History of the NYS College of Agriculture at Cornell University'', Cornell University Press, p.161.</ref><ref>Gove, B. 2005. Logging railroads of the Adirondacks. Syracuse University Press. pp. 176-181.</ref>. During this same time many wildfires were happening in the area due to the sparks from locomotive stacks landing on log stashes. Louis Marshall, an American constitution and civil-rights lawyer, branded locomotives as an "instrument of arson"<ref>Angus, Christopher.The extraordinary Adirondack journey of Clarence Petty: wilderness guide, pilot, and conservationist, p.17</ref>.Unfortunately, Bernhard Fernow was aware of this and continued to build this controversial railroad system that stretched 6 miles and was primarily used to transport wood<ref>en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernhard_Fernow</ref>. However, In 1907 Bernhard Fernow became the founding dean of the University of Toronto's Faculty of Forestry, this was Canadas first university school devoted to forest fire<ref>Hosmer, R.S. 1923. Dr. Fernow's life work. J Forest 21:320-323</ref>. To date, Fernow is known to be called the "father of professional forestry in the United States."

=Waste Places=
Fernow noticed that the bulk of American papers which recommended methods for planting forests did not account for places with poor growing conditions. These places were deemed to be "Waste Places" by Fernow. He describes these waste places as areas that will not grow grass's or any other crops<ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>. The locations of these areas were typically places with inadequate soil structure and/or had problems with water. Fernow describes these waste Places as unusable because they are either stony, too wet or too dry. Wet locations do not drain well enough, and dry areas can be too sandy for agricultural use <ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>. Furthermore, Fernow believed it was important to learn how to properly "forest" these areas because the interests of agriculture will ultimately confine forests to these places<ref>Fernow 1883, 153-154</ref>. His vision of forestry was different. In a letter addressed to fellow engineers he talks about poor forest management, and the effects on timber. He also predicted that if "recklessness, wastefulness, and ignorance" continue it would lead to timber "scarcity, high prices, and injurious influences on all industries using wood"<ref>Fernow 1885, 272-281</ref>. Fernow did indeed believe he had a solution for these waste places. He believed that by encouraging tree growth in these areas, they can, in time, become improved enough and will gain value and be sufficient enough to grow crops <ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>.

In One of Fernow’s writings, “Planting in Waste Places,” he describes the conditions of how the land needs to be in order to produce the most successful yield <ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>. According to Fernow, plots of land that are too arid, for example prairie’s, don't serve much of a purpose and land that is too wet won’t produce any good crops<ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>. He then goes on to describe an instrument that was extremely helpful in the planting of millions of young pines every year. This tool is made up of two parts: the shoe, which was made of iron with one rounded and one flat side, tapering towards the end, the shape a half cone, so that when two of these shoes placed together, with the flat sides, it would create a perfect cone. The second part which is located in the center of the shoe has a threaded hole to receive the handle. The handle consists of a five-eighths inch rod, three and one/half feet long, with a squarely set wood shaft <ref>Fernow 1883 155-156</ref>. At first glance the tool resembles a carrot dangling by a rope on a piece of wood. It is used by throwing the iron cone into the ground where the plant is to stand. A hole is made by moving the cone back and forth. The plant would then be placed within the hole that was created by using this instrument.

=Yield of Wood and When to Cut It=
The purpose of this article was to answer questions of how trees grow, ways in which tree growth can be encouraged, the best time to harvest trees, and information that should be considered in context to forest control<ref>Fernow, 1882, 19</ref>. Fernow addressed the idea of the best age for cutting the wood involved a mathematical calculation along with knowledge of the forest. Some of this knowledge included knowing when wood had hit its peak and had just started to decline<ref>Fernow, 1882, 22</ref>. He also characterized wood in two ways, "log-wood", "billets" and "brush" wood<ref>Fernow, 1882, 20</ref>. Fernow also made an observation which was that beech and spruce forests do not exhaust soil nutrients even over thousands of years of occupation<ref>Fernow, 1882, 25</ref>.

According to Fernow, the weight of charcoal, if properly prepared and housed, is practically a constant factor, since most charcoal is not used fresh, but rather used after weeks when it has absorbed almost all amounts of moisture (up to 10 to 15 per cent)<ref>Bernhard, 1882, 21</ref>. Because of this Fernow believed that charcoal should be sold by weight, not by the bushel since it had a relatively consistent weight<ref>Fernow, 1882, 21</ref>.
Fernow believed that a low yield of charcoal was due to the woodcutters. This is because woodcutters had to use a specific type of wood and a specific length of stick to cut in order to produce the highest yield<ref>Fernow, 1882, 19</ref>.

=Notes=

=References=
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1883. “Planting in Waste Places.” The American Journal of Forestry, January, 153–55.
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1882. “The Yield of Wood and When to Cut It.” Journal of the United States Association of Charcoal Iron Workers 3 (1): 19–26.
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1885. "Should our Charcoal in the Future Be Produced From Coppice or Timber Forest?" Journal of the United States Association of Charcoal Iron Workers 6: 272-281

Bernhard Fernow (1851-1923)

2020-10-13T13:23:37Z

Jakob.kidd: /* Waste Places */

=Background=

Bernhard Fernow was born in the Prussian Province of Posen. In Prussia, Fernow spent a year in the Prussian forest service prior to studying at the University of Königsberg and the Royal Prussian Academy of Forestry at Münden<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernhard_Fernow</ref>. He emigrated to the United States in 1876 after marrying his wife Olivia Reynolds, who actively helped him in many of his later projects. Fernow worked various jobs up until 1878. During this year, he got the opportunity to manage 15,000 acres of woods in Pennsylvania which was primarily used to obtain charcoal<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernhard_Fernow</ref>. In 1886, Fernow was named the third Chief of the USDA's Division of Forestry of the United States until 1898<ref>Rines, George Edwin, ed. (1920). "Fernow, Bernhard Eduard". Encyclopedia Americana.</ref>.
During his time as chief his main policy goals were the establishment of a national forest system and the introduction of scientific forest management. Fernow produced many scientific reports to protect watersheds while working toward the creation of national forests <ref>Twight, B.W. 1990. Bernhard Fernow and Prussian forestry in America. Journal of Forestry 88(2):21-25</ref>. During the 1893 Chicago World's Fair, Fernow helped create forestry exhibits that generated much needed public support for the establishment of a Prussian inspired national forest system in the United States<ref>Twight, B.W. 1990. Bernhard Fernow and Prussian forestry in America. [[Journal of Forestry|J For]] 88(2):21-25</ref>. As head of the USDA's Forestry Division, Fernow helped create the Forest Reserve Act of 1891 and the Organic Act of 1897. After his time as Chief of the USDA's Division of Forestry came to an end, Fernow became the first dean of the New York State College of Forestry at Cornell. This was the first four-year forestry school in the United States. However, Fernow's time as dean of the school was not particularly fruitful. The program was shut down in 1903 by the New York State government as the program was unpopular due to its clear-cutting and the fires it caused<ref>Charles Z. Lincoln, ed. (1910) ''Messages from the Governors', vol. X, Albany, p. 555, cited in Colman, Gould P. (1963) ''Education & Agriculture, A History of the NYS College of Agriculture at Cornell University'', Cornell University Press, p.161.</ref><ref>Gove, B. 2005. Logging railroads of the Adirondacks. Syracuse University Press. pp. 176-181.</ref>. During this same time many wildfires were happening in the area due to the sparks from locomotive stacks landing on log stashes. Louis Marshall, an American constitution and civil-rights lawyer, branded locomotives as an "instrument of arson"<ref>Angus, Christopher.The extraordinary Adirondack journey of Clarence Petty: wilderness guide, pilot, and conservationist, p.17</ref>.Unfortunately, Bernhard Fernow was aware of this and continued to build this controversial railroad system that stretched 6 miles and was primarily used to transport wood<ref>en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernhard_Fernow</ref>. However, In 1907 Bernhard Fernow became the founding dean of the University of Toronto's Faculty of Forestry, this was Canadas first university school devoted to forest fire<ref>Hosmer, R.S. 1923. Dr. Fernow's life work. J Forest 21:320-323</ref>. To date, Fernow is known to be called the "father of professional forestry in the United States."

=Waste Places=
Fernow noticed that the bulk of American papers which recommended methods for planting forests did not account for places with poor growing conditions. These places were deemed to be "Waste Places" by Fernow. He describes these waste places as areas that will not grow grass's or any other crops<ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>. The locations of these areas were typically places with inadequate soil structure and/or had problems with water. Fernow describes these waste Places as unusable because they are either stony, too wet or too dry. Wet locations do not drain well enough, and dry areas can be too sandy for agricultural use <ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>. Furthermore, Fernow believed it was important to learn how to properly "forest" these areas because the interests of agriculture will ultimately confine forests to these places<ref>Fernow 1883, 153-154</ref>. His vision of forestry was different. In a letter addressed to fellow engineers he talks about poor forest management, and the effects on timber. He also predicted that if "recklessness, wastefulness, and ignorance" continue it would lead to timber "scarcity, high prices, and injurious influences on all industries using wood"<ref>Fernow 1885, 272-281</ref>. Fernow did indeed believe he had a solution for these waste places. He believed that by encouraging tree growth in these areas, they can, in time, become improved enough and will gain value and be sufficient enough to grow crops <ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>.

In One of Fernow’s writings, “Planting in Waste Places,” he describes the conditions of how the land needs to be in order to produce the most successful yield <ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>. According to Fernow, plots of land that are too arid, for example prairie’s, don't serve much of a purpose and land that is too wet won’t produce any good crops<ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>. He then goes on to describe an instrument that was extremely helpful in the planting of millions of young pines every year. This tool is made up of two parts: the shoe, which was made of iron with one rounded and one flat side, tapering towards the end, the shape a half cone, so that when two of these shoes placed together, with the flat sides, it would create a perfect cone. The second part which is located in the center of the shoe has a threaded hole to receive the handle. The handle consists of a five-eighths inch rod, three and one/half feet long, with a squarely set wood shaft <ref>Fernow 1883 155-156</ref>. At first glance the tool resembles a carrot dangling by a rope on a piece of wood. It is used by throwing the iron cone into the ground where the plant is to stand. A hole is made by moving the cone back and forth. The plant would then be placed within the hole that was created by using this instrument.

=Yield of Wood and When to Cut It=
The purpose of this article was to answer questions of how trees grow, ways in which tree growth can be encouraged, the best time to harvest trees, and information that should be considered in context to forest control<ref>Fernow, 1882, 19</ref>. Fernow addressed the idea of the best age for cutting the wood involved a mathematical calculation along with knowledge of the forest. Some of this knowledge included knowing when wood had hit its peak and had just started to decline<ref>Fernow, 1882, 22</ref>. He also characterized wood in two ways, "log-wood", "billets" and "brush" wood<ref>Fernow, 1882, 20</ref>. Fernow also made an observation which was that beech and spruce forests do not exhaust soil nutrients even over thousands of years of occupation<ref>Fernow, 1882, 25</ref>.

According to Fernow, the weight of charcoal, if properly prepared and housed, is practically a constant factor, since most charcoal is not used fresh, but rather used after weeks when it has absorbed almost all amounts of moisture (up to 10 to 15 per cent)<ref>Bernhard, 1882, 21</ref>. Because of this Fernow believed that charcoal should be sold by weight, not by the bushel since it had a relatively consistent weight<ref>Fernow, 1882, 21</ref>.
Fernow believed that a low yield of charcoal was due to the woodcutters. This is because woodcutters had to use a specific type of wood and a specific length of stick to cut<ref>Fernow, 1882, 19</ref>.

=Notes=

=References=
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1883. “Planting in Waste Places.” The American Journal of Forestry, January, 153–55.
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1882. “The Yield of Wood and When to Cut It.” Journal of the United States Association of Charcoal Iron Workers 3 (1): 19–26.
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1885. "Should our Charcoal in the Future Be Produced From Coppice or Timber Forest?" Journal of the United States Association of Charcoal Iron Workers 6: 272-281

Bernhard Fernow (1851-1923)

2020-10-12T23:02:48Z

Jakob.kidd: /* Background */

=Background=

Bernhard Fernow was born in the Prussian Province of Posen. In Prussia, Fernow spent a year in the Prussian forest service prior to studying at the University of Königsberg and the Royal Prussian Academy of Forestry at Münden<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernhard_Fernow</ref>. He emigrated to the United States in 1876 after marrying his wife Olivia Reynolds, who actively helped him in many of his later projects. Fernow worked various jobs up until 1878. During this year, he got the opportunity to manage 15,000 acres of woods in Pennsylvania which was primarily used to obtain charcoal<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernhard_Fernow</ref>. In 1886, Fernow was named the third Chief of the USDA's Division of Forestry of the United States until 1898<ref>Rines, George Edwin, ed. (1920). "Fernow, Bernhard Eduard". Encyclopedia Americana.</ref>.
During his time as chief his main policy goals were the establishment of a national forest system and the introduction of scientific forest management. Fernow produced many scientific reports to protect watersheds while working toward the creation of national forests <ref>Twight, B.W. 1990. Bernhard Fernow and Prussian forestry in America. Journal of Forestry 88(2):21-25</ref>. During the 1893 Chicago World's Fair, Fernow helped create forestry exhibits that generated much needed public support for the establishment of a Prussian inspired national forest system in the United States<ref>Twight, B.W. 1990. Bernhard Fernow and Prussian forestry in America. [[Journal of Forestry|J For]] 88(2):21-25</ref>. As head of the USDA's Forestry Division, Fernow helped create the Forest Reserve Act of 1891 and the Organic Act of 1897. After his time as Chief of the USDA's Division of Forestry came to an end, Fernow became the first dean of the New York State College of Forestry at Cornell. This was the first four-year forestry school in the United States. However, Fernow's time as dean of the school was not particularly fruitful. The program was shut down in 1903 by the New York State government as the program was unpopular due to its clear-cutting and the fires it caused<ref>Charles Z. Lincoln, ed. (1910) ''Messages from the Governors', vol. X, Albany, p. 555, cited in Colman, Gould P. (1963) ''Education & Agriculture, A History of the NYS College of Agriculture at Cornell University'', Cornell University Press, p.161.</ref><ref>Gove, B. 2005. Logging railroads of the Adirondacks. Syracuse University Press. pp. 176-181.</ref>. During this same time many wildfires were happening in the area due to the sparks from locomotive stacks landing on log stashes. Louis Marshall, an American constitution and civil-rights lawyer, branded locomotives as an "instrument of arson"<ref>Angus, Christopher.The extraordinary Adirondack journey of Clarence Petty: wilderness guide, pilot, and conservationist, p.17</ref>.Unfortunately, Bernhard Fernow was aware of this and continued to build this controversial railroad system that stretched 6 miles and was primarily used to transport wood<ref>en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernhard_Fernow</ref>. However, In 1907 Bernhard Fernow became the founding dean of the University of Toronto's Faculty of Forestry, this was Canadas first university school devoted to forest fire<ref>Hosmer, R.S. 1923. Dr. Fernow's life work. J Forest 21:320-323</ref>. To date, Fernow is known to be called the "father of professional forestry in the United States."

=Waste Places=
Fernow noticed that the bulk of American papers which recommended methods for planting forests did not account for places with poor growing conditions. These places were deemed to be "Waste Places" by Fernow. He describes these waste places as areas that will not grow grass's or any other crops<ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>. The locations of these areas were typically places with inadequate soil structure and/or had problems with water. Fernow describes waste Places as unusable because they are either stony, too wet or too dry. Wet locations do not drain well enough, and dry areas can be too sandy for agricultural use <ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>. Furthermore, Fernow believed it was important to learn how to properly "forest" these areas because the interests of agriculture will ultimately confine forests to these places<ref>Fernow 1883, 153-154</ref>. His vision of forestry was different. In a letter addressed to fellow engineers he talks about poor forest management, and the effects on timber. He also predicted that if "recklessness, wastefulness, and ignorance" continue it would lead to timber "scarcity, high prices, and injurious influences on all industries using wood"<ref>Fernow 1885, 272-281</ref>. Fernow did indeed believe he had a solution for these waste places. He believed that by encouraging tree growth in these areas, they can, in time, become improved enough and will gain value and be sufficient enough to grow crops <ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>.

In One of Fernow’s writings, “Planting in Waste Places,” he describes the conditions of how the land needs to be in order to produce the most successful yield <ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>. According to Fernow, plots of land that are too arid, for example prairie’s, don't serve much of a purpose and land that is too wet won’t produce any good crops<ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>. He then goes on to describe an instrument that was extremely helpful in the planting of millions of young pines every year. This tool is made up of two parts: the shoe, which was made of iron with one rounded and one flat side, tapering towards the end, the shape a half cone, so that when two of these shoes placed together, with the flat sides, it would create a perfect cone. The second part which is located in the center of the shoe has a threaded hole to receive the handle. The handle consists of a five-eighths inch rod, three and one/half feet long, with a squarely set wood shaft <ref>Fernow 1883 155-156</ref>. At first glance the tool resembles a carrot dangling by a rope on a piece of wood. It is used by throwing the iron cone into the ground where the plant is to stand. A hole is made by moving the cone back and forth. The plant would then be placed within the hole that was created by using this instrument.

=Yield of Wood and When to Cut It=
The purpose of this article was to answer questions of how trees grow, ways in which tree growth can be encouraged, the best time to harvest trees, and information that should be considered in context to forest control<ref>Fernow, 1882, 19</ref>. Fernow addressed the idea of the best age for cutting the wood involved a mathematical calculation along with knowledge of the forest. Some of this knowledge included knowing when wood had hit its peak and had just started to decline<ref>Fernow, 1882, 22</ref>. He also characterized wood in two ways, "log-wood", "billets" and "brush" wood<ref>Fernow, 1882, 20</ref>. Fernow also made an observation which was that beech and spruce forests do not exhaust soil nutrients even over thousands of years of occupation<ref>Fernow, 1882, 25</ref>.

According to Fernow, the weight of charcoal, if properly prepared and housed, is practically a constant factor, since most charcoal is not used fresh, but rather used after weeks when it has absorbed almost all amounts of moisture (up to 10 to 15 per cent)<ref>Bernhard, 1882, 21</ref>. Because of this Fernow believed that charcoal should be sold by weight, not by the bushel since it had a relatively consistent weight<ref>Fernow, 1882, 21</ref>.
Fernow believed that a low yield of charcoal was due to the woodcutters. This is because woodcutters had to use a specific type of wood and a specific length of stick to cut<ref>Fernow, 1882, 19</ref>.

=Notes=

=References=
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1883. “Planting in Waste Places.” The American Journal of Forestry, January, 153–55.
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1882. “The Yield of Wood and When to Cut It.” Journal of the United States Association of Charcoal Iron Workers 3 (1): 19–26.
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1885. "Should our Charcoal in the Future Be Produced From Coppice or Timber Forest?" Journal of the United States Association of Charcoal Iron Workers 6: 272-281

The Balliet Family

2020-10-12T18:48:59Z

Jakob.kidd: /* John Balliet */

This page gives context to the activities of the Balliet family's iron-producing activities in the mid 1800s. More information on these individuals can be found on their respective pages.

==Aaron Balliet==
In 1837 [[Aaron Balliet (1813-1895)]] erected a charcoal furnace in Carbon County and operated it for twenty years before relocating to Ballietsville<ref>Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 505</ref>. Aaron Balliet, his brother [[Stephen Balliet (1809-1860)]], his brother-in-law [[Benjamin Levan (1806-1886)]], and his father [[Stephen Balliet (1781-1854)]] became incorporated to form Stephen Balliet & Co., with the purpose of building iron furnaces<ref>Roberts et al. 1914, 1:633</ref>. In 1854 his father died and the company admitted new partners and became the [[Lehigh Valley Iron Company]] <ref>Roberts et al. 1914, 1:633</ref>. In 1879, after various financial hardships, the company reincorporated as the Coplay Iron Company, with Aaron Balliet serving as a director of the company<ref>Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 504 </ref>. Aaron Balliet also managed mines with his brothers [[Paul Balliet (1811-1886)]] and [[John Balliet (1819-1886)]].

==Benjamin Levan==
[[Benjamin Levan (1806-1886)]] was married to Maria Balliet, daughter of [[Stephen Balliet (1781-1854)]]<ref>Roberts et al. 1914, 2:51-54</ref>. Levan became the superintendent of the [[Lehigh Furnace]] in Washington Township, PA, a position that he held for twenty-eight years<ref>Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 504 </ref>. Benjamin Levan later moved to Whitehall Township, where he was integral in establishing the furnace at the [[Lehigh Valley Iron Company]]. He remained with the company for thirty years serving as secretary, treasurer, superintendent, and general manager<ref>Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 504 </ref>.

==John Balliet==
[[John Balliet (1819-1886)]] worked at the [[Lehigh Furnace]], which was owned by his father [[Stephen Balliet (1781-1854)]]<ref>Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 555</ref>. He later became the co-owner, alongside his brothers [[Paul Balliet (1811-1886)]] and [[Aaron Balliet (1813-1895)]], and superintendent of said property<ref>Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 555</ref>. John Balliet moved to East Penn Township and became the superintendent of the [[East Penn Furnace]], which was later partially destroyed by floods<ref>Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 556</ref>. John Balliet rebuilt, leased, and successfully ran the furnace for many years. He also built and opened a store in 1872 <ref>Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 767-768</ref>.

==Paul Balliet==
[[Paul Balliet (1811-1886)]] managed a furnace that his father [[Stephen Balliet (1781-1854)]] owned. Along with his brothers [[Aaron Balliet (1813-1895)]] and [[John Balliet (1819-1886)]], Paul Balliet became involved in a mining enterprise in North Whitehall.

==Stephen Balliet==
In 1826 [[Stephen Balliet (1781-1854)]] and Samuel Helffrich bought the land upon which the [[Lehigh Furnace]] would be built, purchasing twenty-five acres at the southern foot of the Blue Mountain from Christian Snyder and Christian Bloss<ref>Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 553 </ref>. Stephen Balliet and Helffrich erected the [[East Penn Forge]] on the north side of the Blue Mountain in East Penn Township, Carbon County in 1828<ref>Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 722 </ref>. In 1830 Helffrich died<ref>Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 553</ref>, and his shares in the iron business were bought by Stephen Balliet two years later<ref>Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 722 </ref>. In 1837 Stephen Balliet purchased three thousand acres of land near the forge, built another furnace, and constructed additional housing for workers, bringing the total to eleven<ref>Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 722 </ref>. Stephen Balliet continued to operate the furnace until his death in 1854<ref>Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 553</ref>.

==Stephen Balliet==
In 1853 [[Stephen Balliet (1809-1860)]], his brother [[Aaron Balliet (1813-1895)]], his brother-in-law [[Benjamin Levan (1806-1886)]], and his father [[Stephen Balliet (1781-1854)]] became incorporated to form Stephen Balliet & Co., beginning the Coplay Ironworks<ref>Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 504</ref>.

Stephen Balliet married Maria Anna Bieber (1811-1832) in 1831<ref>Roberts et al. 1914, 2:49</ref>. They had a son together, Lewis Bieber Balliet (1832-1913). Stephen Balliet's wife died in April of 1832. Following her death, he married Elizabeth Huntzinger and together they had eleven children, five of whom survived into adulthood: Sarah, Emma, Fannie, Margaret, and Arabella<ref> Roberts et al. 1914, 2:49</ref>.

The Northampton Bank in Allentown, PA, chartered in 1814, began to fail in 1842 and shut its doors. The bank reopened in 1843<ref>Mathews and Hungerford, 145</ref>, and Stephen Balliet was elected as the president of the bank on June 5 of that year<ref>Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 146</ref>.

==Notes==
<references />

==References==
* Hellerich, Mahlon Howard. 1987. ''A History of Allentown: 1861-1865.'' In Allentown 1762-1987: A 225-Year History, edited by Mahlon Howard Hellerich, 91–180. Allentown, PA: Lehigh County Historical Society.

* Mathews, Alfred, and Austin N. Hungerford. 1884. ''History of the Counties of Lehigh and Carbon, in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania.'' Philadelphia: Everts & Richards.

*Roberts, Charles Rhoads, John Baer Stoudt, Thomas H. Krick, and William J. Dietrich. 1914. ''History of Lehigh County, Pennsylvania, and a Genealogical and Biographical Record of Its Families.'' Vol. I, Allentown, PA: Lehigh Valley Publishing Company, Limited.

*Roberts, Charles Rhoads, John Baer Stoudt, Thomas H. Krick, and William J. Dietrich. 1914. ''History of Lehigh County, Pennsylvania, and a Genealogical and Biographical Record of Its Families.'' Vol. II, Allentown, PA: Lehigh Valley Publishing Company, Limited.

Paulus Balliet (1717-1777)

2020-10-12T18:32:38Z

Jakob.kidd: /* Family */

== Early Life ==
Paulus Balliet, who was born in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alsace Alsace, France], was the first Balliet to come to the Lehigh Valley<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 511 </ref>, arriving in Pennsylvania in 1738<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 538 </ref>.Within the Lehigh Valley he settled in Whitehall just like many other individuals who were of the superior class <ref>Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 6</ref>. Paulus Balliet left France to escape the religious persecution of French Protestants, Huguenots, which had begun following the repeal of the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edict_of_Nantes Edict of Nantes] in 1685<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 538 </ref>.

== Family ==
Paulus Balliet married Maria Magdalena Wotring (1727-1802), a woman originally from Lorraine, France<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 538 </ref>. Together they had nine children: Jacob, John (1761-1837)<ref>Find a Grave</ref>, Nicholas, Paul (1766-1845)<ref>Find a Grave</ref>, [[Stephen Balliet (1753-1821)]], Maria Catharine (1752-1823)<ref>Find a Grave</ref>, Eva, Magdalena, and Susan<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 511 </ref>.

On April 10, 1759 Paulus Balliet was naturalized<ref>The Morning Call November 21, 1901</ref> and both he and his wife are buried in Whitehall, PA<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 538 </ref>.

== Business ==
On April 12, 1749 Paulus Balliet applied to purchase 97 acres 100 perches of land (officially deeded in 1761) that would become the “old Balliet farm”<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 511 </ref> from Thomas and Richard Penn<ref>Montgomery 1909, 750</ref>. A warrant for the surveying of this land was granted to Paulus Balliet on October 9, 1759<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 511 </ref>. Between the years 1749 and 1774, Paulus Balliet purchased an additional 713 acres 131 perches<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 511 </ref>. On this land, Paulus Balliet built a log hotel that became known as the Whitehall Hotel<ref>Roberts et al. 1914, 862</ref> on the old Mauch Chunk road<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 525 </ref>. The hotel was also the site of a post station for several years<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 525 </ref>. The hotel was eventually torn down by [[Stephen Balliet (1781-1854)]] in 1840<ref>Roberts et al. 1914, 862</ref>. Paulus Balliet also operated a store on his property, with the store becoming one of the foremost stores in the area during its time<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 525 </ref>. The land owned by Paulus Balliet is now the village of Ballietsville<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 538 </ref>. To this day Ballietsville still exists and is home to approximately 1,000 people. It is also the oldest village in North-Whitehall<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballietsville,_Pennsylvania</ref>.

Paulus Balliet gained the nickname of "Bowl" Balliet which he reportedly received from Native Americans because that was what he used to distribute food to them<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 511 </ref>. Despite this idyllic story, he fought with Native Americans and armed militias against them<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 519 </ref>. A fort was located on Paulus Balliet's property with the purpose of providing shelter to settlers from native american attack<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 519 </ref>. The land that Paulus Balliet acquired had traditionally been an important hunting and camping site of the Delaware and Shawanese tribes<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 518 </ref> This can be partly attributed to the fact that there were multiple springs of pure water, some of which make up the headwaters of Coplay Creek<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 526 </ref>.

==Notes==
<references />

==References==
*Find a Grave, database and images [https://www.findagrave.com : accessed 23 June 2020], memorial page for Paulus Balliet (1717–19 Mar 1777), Find a Grave Memorial no. 34170736, citing Neffs Union Cemetery, Neffs, Lehigh County, Pennsylvania, USA ; Maintained by Pat Thomas (contributor 47094871) .

* Mathews, Alfred, and Austin N Hungerford. 1884. ''History of the Counties of Lehigh and Carbon, in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania.'' Philadelphia: Everts & Richards.

*Montgomery, Morton L. 1909. ''Historical and Biographical Annuals of Berks County, Pennsylvania: Embracing a Concise History of the County and a Genealogical and Biographical Record of Representative Families.'' Vol. I, Chicago: J. H. Beers & Co.[https://www.familysearch.org/library/books/records/item/529186-historical-and-biographical-annals-of-berks-county-pennsylvania-embracing-a-concise-history-of-the-county-and-a-genealogical-and-biographical-record-of-representative-families-v-1?viewer=1&offset=2#page=2&viewer=picture&o=search&n=0&q=morton%20montg]

*The Morning Call. 1901. ''A Valuable Relic,'' November 21, 1901.[https://www.newspapers.com/image/274723318/?terms=%22aaron%2Bballiet%22]

*Roberts, Charles Rhoads, John Baer Stoudt, Thomas H. Krick, and William J. Dietrich. 1914. ''History of Lehigh County, Pennsylvania, and a Genealogical and Biographical Record of Its Families''. Vol. I, Allentown, PA: Lehigh Valley Publishing Company, Limited.

Stephen Balliet (1753-1821)

2020-10-12T18:29:46Z

Jakob.kidd: /* Early Life */

== Early Life ==
Stephen Balliet was born in 1753 to [[Paulus Balliet (1717-1777)]] and Maria Magdalena Wotring<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 511 </ref>. Stephen Balliet was the lieutenant colonel of the First Battalion, Northampton County Militia<ref> Roberts et al. 1914, 1189</ref> in the Revolutionary army and was involved in the battle of Brandywine in 1777<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 511 </ref>. Many other settlers from Whitehall were eager to take arms in their fight for independence including the Ballets<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 521 </ref>. Stephen Balliet commanded a regiment at the battle of Brandywine in 1777<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 521 </ref>.

== Family ==
Stephen Balliet married [[Magdalena Burgalter (1765-1805)]]<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 511 </ref>. The couple had two sons, Stephen and Joseph<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 538 </ref>.

== Later Life ==
Stephen Balliet was a merchant by trade<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 538</ref>. In 1789, Stephen Balliet was elected to the House of Representatives in Harrisburg, PA, and served until 1790<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 511</ref>. Then, in 1797, Stephen Balliet was authorized as revenue collector for the Second District of Pennsylvania<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 511</ref>.
Stephen Balliet passed away on August 4, 1821.

==Notes==
<references />

==References==
* Mathews, Alfred, and Austin N Hungerford. 1884. ''History of the Counties of Lehigh and Carbon, in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania.'' Philadelphia: Everts & Richards.

*Roberts, Charles Rhoads, John Baer Stoudt, Thomas H. Krick, and William J. Dietrich. 1914. ''History of Lehigh County, Pennsylvania, and a Genealogical and Biographical Record of Its Families.'' Vol. III, Allentown, PA: Lehigh Valley Publishing Company, Limited.

Paulus Balliet (1717-1777)

2020-10-12T18:10:35Z

Jakob.kidd: /* Business */

== Early Life ==
Paulus Balliet, who was born in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alsace Alsace, France], was the first Balliet to come to the Lehigh Valley<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 511 </ref>, arriving in Pennsylvania in 1738<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 538 </ref>.Within the Lehigh Valley he settled in Whitehall just like many other individuals who were of the superior class <ref>Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 6</ref>. Paulus Balliet left France to escape the religious persecution of French Protestants, Huguenots, which had begun following the repeal of the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edict_of_Nantes Edict of Nantes] in 1685<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 538 </ref>.

== Family ==
Paulus Balliet married Maria Magdalena Wotring (1727-1802), a woman originally from Lorraine, France<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 538 </ref>. Together they had nine children: Jacob, John (1761-1837)<ref>Find a Grave</ref>, Nicholas, Paul (1766-1845)<ref>Find a Grave</ref>, [[Stephen Balliet (1753-1821)]], Maria Catharine (1752-1823)<ref>Find a Grave</ref>, Eva, Magdalena, and Susan<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 511 </ref>.

On April 10, 1759 Paulus Balliet was naturalized<ref>The Morning Call November 21, 1901</ref>. Both Paulus Balliet and his wife are buried in Whitehall, PA<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 538 </ref>.

== Business ==
On April 12, 1749 Paulus Balliet applied to purchase 97 acres 100 perches of land (officially deeded in 1761) that would become the “old Balliet farm”<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 511 </ref> from Thomas and Richard Penn<ref>Montgomery 1909, 750</ref>. A warrant for the surveying of this land was granted to Paulus Balliet on October 9, 1759<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 511 </ref>. Between the years 1749 and 1774, Paulus Balliet purchased an additional 713 acres 131 perches<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 511 </ref>. On this land, Paulus Balliet built a log hotel that became known as the Whitehall Hotel<ref>Roberts et al. 1914, 862</ref> on the old Mauch Chunk road<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 525 </ref>. The hotel was also the site of a post station for several years<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 525 </ref>. The hotel was eventually torn down by [[Stephen Balliet (1781-1854)]] in 1840<ref>Roberts et al. 1914, 862</ref>. Paulus Balliet also operated a store on his property, with the store becoming one of the foremost stores in the area during its time<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 525 </ref>. The land owned by Paulus Balliet is now the village of Ballietsville<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 538 </ref>. To this day Ballietsville still exists and is home to approximately 1,000 people. It is also the oldest village in North-Whitehall<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballietsville,_Pennsylvania</ref>.

Paulus Balliet gained the nickname of "Bowl" Balliet which he reportedly received from Native Americans because that was what he used to distribute food to them<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 511 </ref>. Despite this idyllic story, he fought with Native Americans and armed militias against them<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 519 </ref>. A fort was located on Paulus Balliet's property with the purpose of providing shelter to settlers from native american attack<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 519 </ref>. The land that Paulus Balliet acquired had traditionally been an important hunting and camping site of the Delaware and Shawanese tribes<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 518 </ref> This can be partly attributed to the fact that there were multiple springs of pure water, some of which make up the headwaters of Coplay Creek<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 526 </ref>.

==Notes==
<references />

==References==
*Find a Grave, database and images [https://www.findagrave.com : accessed 23 June 2020], memorial page for Paulus Balliet (1717–19 Mar 1777), Find a Grave Memorial no. 34170736, citing Neffs Union Cemetery, Neffs, Lehigh County, Pennsylvania, USA ; Maintained by Pat Thomas (contributor 47094871) .

* Mathews, Alfred, and Austin N Hungerford. 1884. ''History of the Counties of Lehigh and Carbon, in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania.'' Philadelphia: Everts & Richards.

*Montgomery, Morton L. 1909. ''Historical and Biographical Annuals of Berks County, Pennsylvania: Embracing a Concise History of the County and a Genealogical and Biographical Record of Representative Families.'' Vol. I, Chicago: J. H. Beers & Co.[https://www.familysearch.org/library/books/records/item/529186-historical-and-biographical-annals-of-berks-county-pennsylvania-embracing-a-concise-history-of-the-county-and-a-genealogical-and-biographical-record-of-representative-families-v-1?viewer=1&offset=2#page=2&viewer=picture&o=search&n=0&q=morton%20montg]

*The Morning Call. 1901. ''A Valuable Relic,'' November 21, 1901.[https://www.newspapers.com/image/274723318/?terms=%22aaron%2Bballiet%22]

*Roberts, Charles Rhoads, John Baer Stoudt, Thomas H. Krick, and William J. Dietrich. 1914. ''History of Lehigh County, Pennsylvania, and a Genealogical and Biographical Record of Its Families''. Vol. I, Allentown, PA: Lehigh Valley Publishing Company, Limited.

Paulus Balliet (1717-1777)

2020-10-12T18:01:09Z

Jakob.kidd: /* Early Life */

== Early Life ==
Paulus Balliet, who was born in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alsace Alsace, France], was the first Balliet to come to the Lehigh Valley<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 511 </ref>, arriving in Pennsylvania in 1738<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 538 </ref>.Within the Lehigh Valley he settled in Whitehall just like many other individuals who were of the superior class <ref>Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 6</ref>. Paulus Balliet left France to escape the religious persecution of French Protestants, Huguenots, which had begun following the repeal of the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edict_of_Nantes Edict of Nantes] in 1685<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 538 </ref>.

== Family ==
Paulus Balliet married Maria Magdalena Wotring (1727-1802), a woman originally from Lorraine, France<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 538 </ref>. Together they had nine children: Jacob, John (1761-1837)<ref>Find a Grave</ref>, Nicholas, Paul (1766-1845)<ref>Find a Grave</ref>, [[Stephen Balliet (1753-1821)]], Maria Catharine (1752-1823)<ref>Find a Grave</ref>, Eva, Magdalena, and Susan<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 511 </ref>.

On April 10, 1759 Paulus Balliet was naturalized<ref>The Morning Call November 21, 1901</ref>. Both Paulus Balliet and his wife are buried in Whitehall, PA<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 538 </ref>.

== Business ==
On April 12, 1749 Paulus Balliet applied to purchase 97 acres 100 perches of land (officially deeded in 1761) that would become the “old Balliet farm”<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 511 </ref> from Thomas and Richard Penn<ref>Montgomery 1909, 750</ref>. A warrant for the surveying of this land was granted to Paulus Balliet on October 9, 1759<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 511 </ref>. Between the years 1749 and 1774, Paulus Balliet purchased an additional 713 acres 131 perches<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 511 </ref>. On this land, Paulus Balliet built a log hotel that became known as the Whitehall Hotel<ref>Roberts et al. 1914, 862</ref> on the old Mauch Chunk road<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 525 </ref>. The hotel was also the site of a post station for several years<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 525 </ref>. The hotel was eventually torn down by [[Stephen Balliet (1781-1854)]] in 1840<ref>Roberts et al. 1914, 862</ref>. Paulus Balliet also operated a store on his property, with the store becoming one of the foremost stores in the area during its time<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 525 </ref>. The land owned by Paulus Balliet is now the village of Ballietsville<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 538 </ref>.

Paulus Balliet gained the nickname of "Bowl" Balliet which he reportedly received from Native Americans because that was what he used to distribute food to them<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 511 </ref>. Despite this idyllic story, he fought with Native Americans and armed militias against them<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 519 </ref>. A fort was located on Paulus Balliet's property with the purpose of providing shelter to settlers from native american attack<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 519 </ref>. The land that Paulus Balliet acquired had traditionally been an important hunting and camping site of the Delaware and Shawanese tribes<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 518 </ref> This can be partly attributed to the fact that there were multiple springs of pure water, some of which make up the headwaters of Coplay Creek<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 526 </ref>.

==Notes==
<references />

==References==
*Find a Grave, database and images [https://www.findagrave.com : accessed 23 June 2020], memorial page for Paulus Balliet (1717–19 Mar 1777), Find a Grave Memorial no. 34170736, citing Neffs Union Cemetery, Neffs, Lehigh County, Pennsylvania, USA ; Maintained by Pat Thomas (contributor 47094871) .

* Mathews, Alfred, and Austin N Hungerford. 1884. ''History of the Counties of Lehigh and Carbon, in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania.'' Philadelphia: Everts & Richards.

*Montgomery, Morton L. 1909. ''Historical and Biographical Annuals of Berks County, Pennsylvania: Embracing a Concise History of the County and a Genealogical and Biographical Record of Representative Families.'' Vol. I, Chicago: J. H. Beers & Co.[https://www.familysearch.org/library/books/records/item/529186-historical-and-biographical-annals-of-berks-county-pennsylvania-embracing-a-concise-history-of-the-county-and-a-genealogical-and-biographical-record-of-representative-families-v-1?viewer=1&offset=2#page=2&viewer=picture&o=search&n=0&q=morton%20montg]

*The Morning Call. 1901. ''A Valuable Relic,'' November 21, 1901.[https://www.newspapers.com/image/274723318/?terms=%22aaron%2Bballiet%22]

*Roberts, Charles Rhoads, John Baer Stoudt, Thomas H. Krick, and William J. Dietrich. 1914. ''History of Lehigh County, Pennsylvania, and a Genealogical and Biographical Record of Its Families''. Vol. I, Allentown, PA: Lehigh Valley Publishing Company, Limited.

Paulus Balliet (1717-1777)

2020-10-12T17:59:57Z

Jakob.kidd: /* Early Life */

== Early Life ==
Paulus Balliet, who was born in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alsace Alsace, France], was the first Balliet to come to the Lehigh Valley<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 511 </ref>, arriving in Pennsylvania in 1738<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 538 </ref>.Within the Lehigh Valley, he settled in Whitehall just like many other individuals who were of the superior class <ref></ref> Paulus Balliet left France to escape the religious persecution of French Protestants, Huguenots, which had begun following the repeal of the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edict_of_Nantes Edict of Nantes] in 1685<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 538 </ref>.

== Family ==
Paulus Balliet married Maria Magdalena Wotring (1727-1802), a woman originally from Lorraine, France<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 538 </ref>. Together they had nine children: Jacob, John (1761-1837)<ref>Find a Grave</ref>, Nicholas, Paul (1766-1845)<ref>Find a Grave</ref>, [[Stephen Balliet (1753-1821)]], Maria Catharine (1752-1823)<ref>Find a Grave</ref>, Eva, Magdalena, and Susan<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 511 </ref>.

On April 10, 1759 Paulus Balliet was naturalized<ref>The Morning Call November 21, 1901</ref>. Both Paulus Balliet and his wife are buried in Whitehall, PA<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 538 </ref>.

== Business ==
On April 12, 1749 Paulus Balliet applied to purchase 97 acres 100 perches of land (officially deeded in 1761) that would become the “old Balliet farm”<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 511 </ref> from Thomas and Richard Penn<ref>Montgomery 1909, 750</ref>. A warrant for the surveying of this land was granted to Paulus Balliet on October 9, 1759<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 511 </ref>. Between the years 1749 and 1774, Paulus Balliet purchased an additional 713 acres 131 perches<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 511 </ref>. On this land, Paulus Balliet built a log hotel that became known as the Whitehall Hotel<ref>Roberts et al. 1914, 862</ref> on the old Mauch Chunk road<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 525 </ref>. The hotel was also the site of a post station for several years<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 525 </ref>. The hotel was eventually torn down by [[Stephen Balliet (1781-1854)]] in 1840<ref>Roberts et al. 1914, 862</ref>. Paulus Balliet also operated a store on his property, with the store becoming one of the foremost stores in the area during its time<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 525 </ref>. The land owned by Paulus Balliet is now the village of Ballietsville<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 538 </ref>.

Paulus Balliet gained the nickname of "Bowl" Balliet which he reportedly received from Native Americans because that was what he used to distribute food to them<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 511 </ref>. Despite this idyllic story, he fought with Native Americans and armed militias against them<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 519 </ref>. A fort was located on Paulus Balliet's property with the purpose of providing shelter to settlers from native american attack<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 519 </ref>. The land that Paulus Balliet acquired had traditionally been an important hunting and camping site of the Delaware and Shawanese tribes<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 518 </ref> This can be partly attributed to the fact that there were multiple springs of pure water, some of which make up the headwaters of Coplay Creek<ref> Mathews and Hungerford 1884, 526 </ref>.

==Notes==
<references />

==References==
*Find a Grave, database and images [https://www.findagrave.com : accessed 23 June 2020], memorial page for Paulus Balliet (1717–19 Mar 1777), Find a Grave Memorial no. 34170736, citing Neffs Union Cemetery, Neffs, Lehigh County, Pennsylvania, USA ; Maintained by Pat Thomas (contributor 47094871) .

* Mathews, Alfred, and Austin N Hungerford. 1884. ''History of the Counties of Lehigh and Carbon, in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania.'' Philadelphia: Everts & Richards.

*Montgomery, Morton L. 1909. ''Historical and Biographical Annuals of Berks County, Pennsylvania: Embracing a Concise History of the County and a Genealogical and Biographical Record of Representative Families.'' Vol. I, Chicago: J. H. Beers & Co.[https://www.familysearch.org/library/books/records/item/529186-historical-and-biographical-annals-of-berks-county-pennsylvania-embracing-a-concise-history-of-the-county-and-a-genealogical-and-biographical-record-of-representative-families-v-1?viewer=1&offset=2#page=2&viewer=picture&o=search&n=0&q=morton%20montg]

*The Morning Call. 1901. ''A Valuable Relic,'' November 21, 1901.[https://www.newspapers.com/image/274723318/?terms=%22aaron%2Bballiet%22]

*Roberts, Charles Rhoads, John Baer Stoudt, Thomas H. Krick, and William J. Dietrich. 1914. ''History of Lehigh County, Pennsylvania, and a Genealogical and Biographical Record of Its Families''. Vol. I, Allentown, PA: Lehigh Valley Publishing Company, Limited.

Bernhard Fernow (1851-1923)

2020-10-12T16:21:30Z

Jakob.kidd: /* Background */

=Background=

Bernhard Fernow was born in the Prussian Province of Posen. In Prussia, Fernow spent a year in the Prussian forest service prior to studying at the University of Königsberg and the Royal Prussian Academy of Forestry at Münden<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernhard_Fernow</ref>. He emigrated to the Unites States in 1876 after marrying his wife Olivia Reynolds, who actively helped him in many of his later projects. Fernow worked many various jobs up until 1878. During this year, he got the opportunity to manage 15,000 acres of woods in Pennsylvania which was primarily used to obtain charcoal<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernhard_Fernow</ref>. In 1886, Fernow was named the third Chief of the USDA's Division of Forestry of the United States until 1898<ref>Rines, George Edwin, ed. (1920). "Fernow, Bernhard Eduard". Encyclopedia Americana.</ref>.
During his time as Chief his main policy goals were the establishment of a national forest system and the introduction of scientific forest management. Fernow produced many scientific reports to protect watersheds while working toward the creation of national forests <ref>Twight, B.W. 1990. Bernhard Fernow and Prussian forestry in America. Journal of Forestry 88(2):21-25</ref>. During the 1893 Chicago World's Fair, Fernow helped create forestry exhibits that generated much needed public support for the establishment of a Prussian inspired national forest system in the United States<ref>Twight, B.W. 1990. Bernhard Fernow and Prussian forestry in America. [[Journal of Forestry|J For]] 88(2):21-25</ref>. As the head of the USDA's Forestry Division, Fernow helped create the Forest Reserve Act of 1891 and the Organic Act of 1897. After his time as Chief of the USDA's Division of Forestry came to an end, Fernow became the first dean of the New York State College of Forestry at Cornell. This was the first four-year forestry school in the United States at the time. However, Fernow's time as dean of the school was not particularly fruitful. The program was shut down in 1903 by the New York State government as the program was unpopular due to its clear-cutting and the fires it caused<ref>Charles Z. Lincoln, ed. (1910) ''Messages from the Governors', vol. X, Albany, p. 555, cited in Colman, Gould P. (1963) ''Education & Agriculture, A History of the NYS College of Agriculture at Cornell University'', Cornell University Press, p.161.</ref><ref>Gove, B. 2005. Logging railroads of the Adirondacks. Syracuse University Press. pp. 176-181.</ref>. During this same time many wildfires were happening in the area due to the sparks from locomotive stacks landing on log stashes. Louis Marshall, an American constitution and civil-rights lawyer, branded locomotives as an "instrument of arson"<ref>Angus, Christopher.The extraordinary Adirondack journey of Clarence Petty: wilderness guide, pilot, and conservationist, p.17</ref>.Unfortunately, Bernhard Fernow was aware of this and continued to build this controversial railroad system that stretched 6 miles and was primarily used to transport wood<ref>en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernhard_Fernow</ref>. However, In 1907 Bernhard Fernow became the founding dean of the University of Toronto's Faculty of Forestry, this was Canadas first university school devoted to forest fire<ref>Hosmer, R.S. 1923. Dr. Fernow's life work. J Forest 21:320-323</ref>. To date, Fernow is known to be called the "father of professional forestry in the United States."

=Waste Places=
Fernow noticed that the bulk of American papers which recommended methods for planting forests did not account for places with poor growing conditions. These places were deemed to be "Waste Places" by Fernow. He describes these waste places as areas that will not grow grass's or any other crops<ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>. The locations of these areas were typically places with inadequate soil structure and/or had problems with water. Fernow describes waste Places as unusable because they are either stony, too wet or too dry. Wet locations do not drain well enough, and dry areas can be too sandy for agricultural use <ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>. Furthermore, Fernow believed it was important to learn how to properly "forest" these areas because the interests of agriculture will ultimately confine forests to these places<ref>Fernow 1883, 153-154</ref>. His vision of forestry was different. In a letter addressed to fellow engineers he talks about poor forest management, and the effects on timber. He also predicted that if "recklessness, wastefulness, and ignorance" continue it would lead to timber "scarcity, high prices, and injurious influences on all industries using wood"<ref>Fernow 1885, 272-281</ref>. Fernow did indeed believe he had a solution for these waste places. He believed that by encouraging tree growth in these areas, they can, in time, become improved enough and will gain value and be sufficient enough to grow crops <ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>.

In One of Fernow’s writings, “Planting in Waste Places,” he describes the conditions of how the land needs to be in order to produce the most successful yield <ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>. According to Fernow, plots of land that are too arid, for example prairie’s, don't serve much of a purpose and land that is too wet won’t produce any good crops<ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>. He then goes on to describe an instrument that was extremely helpful in the planting of millions of young pines every year. This tool is made up of two parts: the shoe, which was made of iron with one rounded and one flat side, tapering towards the end, the shape a half cone, so that when two of these shoes placed together, with the flat sides, it would create a perfect cone. The second part which is located in the center of the shoe has a threaded hole to receive the handle. The handle consists of a five-eighths inch rod, three and one/half feet long, with a squarely set wood shaft <ref>Fernow 1883 155-156</ref>. At first glance the tool resembles a carrot dangling by a rope on a piece of wood. It is used by throwing the iron cone into the ground where the plant is to stand. A hole is made by moving the cone back and forth. The plant would then be placed within the hole that was created by using this instrument.

=Yield of Wood and When to Cut It=
The purpose of this article was to answer questions of how trees grow, ways in which tree growth can be encouraged, the best time to harvest trees, and information that should be considered in context to forest control<ref>Fernow, 1882, 19</ref>. Fernow addressed the idea of the best age for cutting the wood involved a mathematical calculation along with knowledge of the forest. Some of this knowledge included knowing when wood had hit its peak and had just started to decline<ref>Fernow, 1882, 22</ref>. He also characterized wood in two ways, "log-wood", "billets" and "brush" wood<ref>Fernow, 1882, 20</ref>. Fernow also made an observation which was that beech and spruce forests do not exhaust soil nutrients even over thousands of years of occupation<ref>Fernow, 1882, 25</ref>.

According to Fernow, the weight of charcoal, if properly prepared and housed, is practically a constant factor, since most charcoal is not used fresh, but rather used after weeks when it has absorbed almost all amounts of moisture (up to 10 to 15 per cent)<ref>Bernhard, 1882, 21</ref>. Because of this Fernow believed that charcoal should be sold by weight, not by the bushel since it had a relatively consistent weight<ref>Fernow, 1882, 21</ref>.
Fernow believed that a low yield of charcoal was due to the woodcutters. This is because woodcutters had to use a specific type of wood and a specific length of stick to cut<ref>Fernow, 1882, 19</ref>.

=Notes=

=References=
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1883. “Planting in Waste Places.” The American Journal of Forestry, January, 153–55.
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1882. “The Yield of Wood and When to Cut It.” Journal of the United States Association of Charcoal Iron Workers 3 (1): 19–26.
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1885. "Should our Charcoal in the Future Be Produced From Coppice or Timber Forest?" Journal of the United States Association of Charcoal Iron Workers 6: 272-281

Bernhard Fernow (1851-1923)

2020-10-12T16:16:10Z

Jakob.kidd: /* Waste Places */

=Background=

Bernhard Fernow was born in the Prussian Province of Posen. In Prussia, Fernow spent a year in the Prussian forest service prior to studying at the University of Königsberg and the Royal Prussian Academy of Forestry at Münden<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernhard_Fernow</ref>. He emigrated to the Unites States in 1876 after marrying his wife Olivia Reynolds, who actively helped him in many of his later projects. Fernow worked many various jobs up until 1878. During this year, he got the opportunity to manage 15,000 acres of woods in Pennsylvania which was primarily used to obtain charcoal<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernhard_Fernow</ref>. In 1886, Fernow was named the third Chief of the USDA's Division of Forestry of the United States until 1898<ref>Rines, George Edwin, ed. (1920). "Fernow, Bernhard Eduard". Encyclopedia Americana.</ref>.
During his time as Chief his main policy goals were the establishment of a national forest system and the introduction of scientific forest management. Fernow produced many scientific reports to protect watersheds while working toward the creation of national forests. During the 1893 Chicago World's Fair, Fernow helped create forestry exhibits that generated much needed public support for the establishment of a Prussian inspired national forest system in the United States<ref>Twight, B.W. 1990. Bernhard Fernow and Prussian forestry in America. [[Journal of Forestry|J For]] 88(2):21-25</ref>. As the head of the USDA's Forestry Division, Fernow helped create the Forest Reserve Act of 1891 and the Organic Act of 1897. After his time as Chief of the USDA's Division of Forestry came to an end, Fernow became the first dean of the New York State College of Forestry at Cornell. This was the first four-year forestry school in the United States at the time. However, Fernow's time as dean of the school was not particularly fruitful. The program was shut down in 1903 by the New York State government as the program was unpopular due to its clear-cutting and the fires it caused<ref>Charles Z. Lincoln, ed. (1910) ''Messages from the Governors', vol. X, Albany, p. 555, cited in Colman, Gould P. (1963) ''Education & Agriculture, A History of the NYS College of Agriculture at Cornell University'', Cornell University Press, p.161.</ref><ref>Gove, B. 2005. Logging railroads of the Adirondacks. Syracuse University Press. pp. 176-181.</ref>. During this same time many wildfires were happening in the area due to the sparks from locomotive stacks landing on log stashes. Louis Marshall, an American constitution and civil-rights lawyer, branded locomotives as an "instrument of arson"<ref>Angus, Christopher.The extraordinary Adirondack journey of Clarence Petty: wilderness guide, pilot, and conservationist, p.17</ref>.Unfortunately, Bernhard Fernow was aware of this and continued to build this controversial railroad system that stretched 6 miles and was primarily used to transport wood<ref>en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernhard_Fernow</ref>. However, In 1907 Bernhard Fernow became the founding dean of the University of Toronto's Faculty of Forestry, this was Canadas first university school devoted to forest fire<ref>Hosmer, R.S. 1923. Dr. Fernow's life work. J Forest 21:320-323</ref>. To date, Fernow is known to be called the "father of professional forestry in the United States."

=Waste Places=
Fernow noticed that the bulk of American papers which recommended methods for planting forests did not account for places with poor growing conditions. These places were deemed to be "Waste Places" by Fernow. He describes these waste places as areas that will not grow grass's or any other crops<ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>. The locations of these areas were typically places with inadequate soil structure and/or had problems with water. Fernow describes waste Places as unusable because they are either stony, too wet or too dry. Wet locations do not drain well enough, and dry areas can be too sandy for agricultural use <ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>. Furthermore, Fernow believed it was important to learn how to properly "forest" these areas because the interests of agriculture will ultimately confine forests to these places<ref>Fernow 1883, 153-154</ref>. His vision of forestry was different. In a letter addressed to fellow engineers he talks about poor forest management, and the effects on timber. He also predicted that if "recklessness, wastefulness, and ignorance" continue it would lead to timber "scarcity, high prices, and injurious influences on all industries using wood"<ref>Fernow 1885, 272-281</ref>. Fernow did indeed believe he had a solution for these waste places. He believed that by encouraging tree growth in these areas, they can, in time, become improved enough and will gain value and be sufficient enough to grow crops <ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>.

In One of Fernow’s writings, “Planting in Waste Places,” he describes the conditions of how the land needs to be in order to produce the most successful yield <ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>. According to Fernow, plots of land that are too arid, for example prairie’s, don't serve much of a purpose and land that is too wet won’t produce any good crops<ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>. He then goes on to describe an instrument that was extremely helpful in the planting of millions of young pines every year. This tool is made up of two parts: the shoe, which was made of iron with one rounded and one flat side, tapering towards the end, the shape a half cone, so that when two of these shoes placed together, with the flat sides, it would create a perfect cone. The second part which is located in the center of the shoe has a threaded hole to receive the handle. The handle consists of a five-eighths inch rod, three and one/half feet long, with a squarely set wood shaft <ref>Fernow 1883 155-156</ref>. At first glance the tool resembles a carrot dangling by a rope on a piece of wood. It is used by throwing the iron cone into the ground where the plant is to stand. A hole is made by moving the cone back and forth. The plant would then be placed within the hole that was created by using this instrument.

=Yield of Wood and When to Cut It=
The purpose of this article was to answer questions of how trees grow, ways in which tree growth can be encouraged, the best time to harvest trees, and information that should be considered in context to forest control<ref>Fernow, 1882, 19</ref>. Fernow addressed the idea of the best age for cutting the wood involved a mathematical calculation along with knowledge of the forest. Some of this knowledge included knowing when wood had hit its peak and had just started to decline<ref>Fernow, 1882, 22</ref>. He also characterized wood in two ways, "log-wood", "billets" and "brush" wood<ref>Fernow, 1882, 20</ref>. Fernow also made an observation which was that beech and spruce forests do not exhaust soil nutrients even over thousands of years of occupation<ref>Fernow, 1882, 25</ref>.

According to Fernow, the weight of charcoal, if properly prepared and housed, is practically a constant factor, since most charcoal is not used fresh, but rather used after weeks when it has absorbed almost all amounts of moisture (up to 10 to 15 per cent)<ref>Bernhard, 1882, 21</ref>. Because of this Fernow believed that charcoal should be sold by weight, not by the bushel since it had a relatively consistent weight<ref>Fernow, 1882, 21</ref>.
Fernow believed that a low yield of charcoal was due to the woodcutters. This is because woodcutters had to use a specific type of wood and a specific length of stick to cut<ref>Fernow, 1882, 19</ref>.

=Notes=

=References=
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1883. “Planting in Waste Places.” The American Journal of Forestry, January, 153–55.
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1882. “The Yield of Wood and When to Cut It.” Journal of the United States Association of Charcoal Iron Workers 3 (1): 19–26.
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1885. "Should our Charcoal in the Future Be Produced From Coppice or Timber Forest?" Journal of the United States Association of Charcoal Iron Workers 6: 272-281

Bernhard Fernow (1851-1923)

2020-10-12T16:08:13Z

Jakob.kidd: /* Background */

=Background=

Bernhard Fernow was born in the Prussian Province of Posen. In Prussia, Fernow spent a year in the Prussian forest service prior to studying at the University of Königsberg and the Royal Prussian Academy of Forestry at Münden<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernhard_Fernow</ref>. He emigrated to the Unites States in 1876 after marrying his wife Olivia Reynolds, who actively helped him in many of his later projects. Fernow worked many various jobs up until 1878. During this year, he got the opportunity to manage 15,000 acres of woods in Pennsylvania which was primarily used to obtain charcoal<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernhard_Fernow</ref>. In 1886, Fernow was named the third Chief of the USDA's Division of Forestry of the United States until 1898<ref>Rines, George Edwin, ed. (1920). "Fernow, Bernhard Eduard". Encyclopedia Americana.</ref>.
During his time as Chief his main policy goals were the establishment of a national forest system and the introduction of scientific forest management. Fernow produced many scientific reports to protect watersheds while working toward the creation of national forests. During the 1893 Chicago World's Fair, Fernow helped create forestry exhibits that generated much needed public support for the establishment of a Prussian inspired national forest system in the United States<ref>Twight, B.W. 1990. Bernhard Fernow and Prussian forestry in America. [[Journal of Forestry|J For]] 88(2):21-25</ref>. As the head of the USDA's Forestry Division, Fernow helped create the Forest Reserve Act of 1891 and the Organic Act of 1897. After his time as Chief of the USDA's Division of Forestry came to an end, Fernow became the first dean of the New York State College of Forestry at Cornell. This was the first four-year forestry school in the United States at the time. However, Fernow's time as dean of the school was not particularly fruitful. The program was shut down in 1903 by the New York State government as the program was unpopular due to its clear-cutting and the fires it caused<ref>Charles Z. Lincoln, ed. (1910) ''Messages from the Governors', vol. X, Albany, p. 555, cited in Colman, Gould P. (1963) ''Education & Agriculture, A History of the NYS College of Agriculture at Cornell University'', Cornell University Press, p.161.</ref><ref>Gove, B. 2005. Logging railroads of the Adirondacks. Syracuse University Press. pp. 176-181.</ref>. During this same time many wildfires were happening in the area due to the sparks from locomotive stacks landing on log stashes. Louis Marshall, an American constitution and civil-rights lawyer, branded locomotives as an "instrument of arson"<ref>Angus, Christopher.The extraordinary Adirondack journey of Clarence Petty: wilderness guide, pilot, and conservationist, p.17</ref>.Unfortunately, Bernhard Fernow was aware of this and continued to build this controversial railroad system that stretched 6 miles and was primarily used to transport wood<ref>en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernhard_Fernow</ref>. However, In 1907 Bernhard Fernow became the founding dean of the University of Toronto's Faculty of Forestry, this was Canadas first university school devoted to forest fire<ref>Hosmer, R.S. 1923. Dr. Fernow's life work. J Forest 21:320-323</ref>. To date, Fernow is known to be called the "father of professional forestry in the United States."

=Waste Places=
Fernow noticed that the bulk of American papers which recommended methods for planting forests did not account for places with poor growing conditions. These places were deemed to be "Waste Places" by Fernow. He describes these waste places as areas that will not grow grass's or any other crops<ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>. The locations of these areas were typically places with inadequate soil structure and/or had problems with water. Fernow describes waste Places as unusable because they are either stony, too wet or too dry. Wet locations do not drain well enough, and dry areas can be too sandy for agricultural use <ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>. Furthermore, Fernow believed it was important to learn how to properly "forest" these areas because the interests of agriculture will ultimately confine forests to these places<ref>Fernow 1883, 153-154</ref>. His vision of forestry was different. In a letter addressed to fellow engineers he talks about poor forest management, and the effects on timber. He also predicted that if "recklessness, wastefulness, and ignorance" continue it would lead to timber "scarcity, high prices, and injurious influences on all industries using wood"<ref>Fernow 1885, 272-281</ref>. Fernow did indeed believe he had a solution for these waste places. He believed that by encouraging tree growth in these areas, they can, in time, become improved enough and will gain value and be sufficient enough to grow crops <ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>.

In One of Fernow’s writings, “Planting in Waste Places,” he describes the conditions of how the land needs to be in order to produce the most successful yield. According to Fernow, plots of land that are too arid, for example prairie’s, don't serve much of a purpose and land that is too wet won’t produce any good crops. He then goes on to describe an instrument that was extremely helpful in the planting of millions of young pines every year. This tool is made up of two parts: the shoe, which was made of iron with one rounded and one flat side, tapering towards the end, the shape a half cone, so that when two of these shoes placed together, with the flat sides, it would create a perfect cone. The second part which is located in the center of the shoe has a threaded hole to receive the handle. The handle consists of a five-eighths inch rod, three and one/half feet long, with a squarely set wood shaft <ref>Fernow 1883 155-156</ref>. At first glance the tool resembles a carrot dangling by a rope on a piece of wood. It is used by throwing the iron cone into the ground where the plant is to stand. A hole is made by moving the cone back and forth. The plant would then be placed within the hole that was created by using this instrument.

=Yield of Wood and When to Cut It=
The purpose of this article was to answer questions of how trees grow, ways in which tree growth can be encouraged, the best time to harvest trees, and information that should be considered in context to forest control<ref>Fernow, 1882, 19</ref>. Fernow addressed the idea of the best age for cutting the wood involved a mathematical calculation along with knowledge of the forest. Some of this knowledge included knowing when wood had hit its peak and had just started to decline<ref>Fernow, 1882, 22</ref>. He also characterized wood in two ways, "log-wood", "billets" and "brush" wood<ref>Fernow, 1882, 20</ref>. Fernow also made an observation which was that beech and spruce forests do not exhaust soil nutrients even over thousands of years of occupation<ref>Fernow, 1882, 25</ref>.

According to Fernow, the weight of charcoal, if properly prepared and housed, is practically a constant factor, since most charcoal is not used fresh, but rather used after weeks when it has absorbed almost all amounts of moisture (up to 10 to 15 per cent)<ref>Bernhard, 1882, 21</ref>. Because of this Fernow believed that charcoal should be sold by weight, not by the bushel since it had a relatively consistent weight<ref>Fernow, 1882, 21</ref>.
Fernow believed that a low yield of charcoal was due to the woodcutters. This is because woodcutters had to use a specific type of wood and a specific length of stick to cut<ref>Fernow, 1882, 19</ref>.

=Notes=

=References=
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1883. “Planting in Waste Places.” The American Journal of Forestry, January, 153–55.
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1882. “The Yield of Wood and When to Cut It.” Journal of the United States Association of Charcoal Iron Workers 3 (1): 19–26.
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1885. "Should our Charcoal in the Future Be Produced From Coppice or Timber Forest?" Journal of the United States Association of Charcoal Iron Workers 6: 272-281

Bernhard Fernow (1851-1923)

2020-10-12T15:55:53Z

Jakob.kidd: /* Background */

=Background=

Bernhard Fernow was born in the Prussian Province of Posen. In Prussia, Fernow spent a year in the Prussian forest service prior to studying at the University of Königsberg and the Royal Prussian Academy of Forestry at Münden<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernhard_Fernow</ref>. He emigrated to the Unites States in 1876 after marrying his wife Olivia Reynolds, who actively helped him in many of his later projects. Fernow worked many various jobs up until 1878. During this year, he got the opportunity to manage 15,000 acres of woods in Pennsylvania which was primarily used to obtain charcoal<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernhard_Fernow</ref>. In 1886, Fernow was named the third Chief of the USDA's Division of Forestry of the United States until 1898<ref>Rines, George Edwin, ed. (1920). "Fernow, Bernhard Eduard". Encyclopedia Americana.</ref>.
During his time as Chief his main policy goals were the establishment of a national forest system and the introduction of scientific forest management. Fernow produced many scientific reports to protect watersheds while working toward the creation of national forests. During the 1893 Chicago World's Fair, Fernow helped create forestry exhibits that generated much needed public support for the establishment of a Prussian inspired national forest system in the United States<ref>Twight, B.W. 1990. Bernhard Fernow and Prussian forestry in America. [[Journal of Forestry|J For]] 88(2):21-25</ref>. As the head of the USDA's Forestry Division, Fernow helped create the Forest Reserve Act of 1891 and the Organic Act of 1897. After his time as Chief of the USDA's Division of Forestry came to an end, Fernow became the first dean of the New York State College of Forestry at Cornell. This was the first four-year forestry school in the United States at the time. However, Fernow's time as dean of the school was not particularly fruitful. The program was shut down in 1903 by the New York State government as the program was unpopular due to its clear-cutting and the fires it caused<ref>Charles Z. Lincoln, ed. (1910) ''Messages from the Governors', vol. X, Albany, p. 555, cited in Colman, Gould P. (1963) ''Education & Agriculture, A History of the NYS College of Agriculture at Cornell University'', Cornell University Press, p.161.</ref><ref>Gove, B. 2005. Logging railroads of the Adirondacks. Syracuse University Press. pp. 176-181.</ref>. During this same time many wildfires were happening in the area due to the sparks from locomotive stacks landing on log stashes. Louis Marshall, an American constitution and civil-rights lawyer, branded locomotives as an "instrument of arson"<ref>Angus, Christopher.The extraordinary Adirondack journey of Clarence Petty: wilderness guide, pilot, and conservationist, p.17</ref>.Unfortunately, Bernhard Fernow was aware of this and continued to build this controversial railroad system that stretched 6 miles and was primarily used to transport wood. However, In 1907 Bernhard Fernow became the founding dean of the University of Toronto's Faculty of Forestry, this was Canadas first university school devoted to forest fire. To date, Fernow is known to be called the "father of professional forestry in the United States."

=Waste Places=
Fernow noticed that the bulk of American papers which recommended methods for planting forests did not account for places with poor growing conditions. These places were deemed to be "Waste Places" by Fernow. He describes these waste places as areas that will not grow grass's or any other crops<ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>. The locations of these areas were typically places with inadequate soil structure and/or had problems with water. Fernow describes waste Places as unusable because they are either stony, too wet or too dry. Wet locations do not drain well enough, and dry areas can be too sandy for agricultural use <ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>. Furthermore, Fernow believed it was important to learn how to properly "forest" these areas because the interests of agriculture will ultimately confine forests to these places<ref>Fernow 1883, 153-154</ref>. His vision of forestry was different. In a letter addressed to fellow engineers he talks about poor forest management, and the effects on timber. He also predicted that if "recklessness, wastefulness, and ignorance" continue it would lead to timber "scarcity, high prices, and injurious influences on all industries using wood"<ref>Fernow 1885, 272-281</ref>. Fernow did indeed believe he had a solution for these waste places. He believed that by encouraging tree growth in these areas, they can, in time, become improved enough and will gain value and be sufficient enough to grow crops <ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>.

In One of Fernow’s writings, “Planting in Waste Places,” he describes the conditions of how the land needs to be in order to produce the most successful yield. According to Fernow, plots of land that are too arid, for example prairie’s, don't serve much of a purpose and land that is too wet won’t produce any good crops. He then goes on to describe an instrument that was extremely helpful in the planting of millions of young pines every year. This tool is made up of two parts: the shoe, which was made of iron with one rounded and one flat side, tapering towards the end, the shape a half cone, so that when two of these shoes placed together, with the flat sides, it would create a perfect cone. The second part which is located in the center of the shoe has a threaded hole to receive the handle. The handle consists of a five-eighths inch rod, three and one/half feet long, with a squarely set wood shaft <ref>Fernow 1883 155-156</ref>. At first glance the tool resembles a carrot dangling by a rope on a piece of wood. It is used by throwing the iron cone into the ground where the plant is to stand. A hole is made by moving the cone back and forth. The plant would then be placed within the hole that was created by using this instrument.

=Yield of Wood and When to Cut It=
The purpose of this article was to answer questions of how trees grow, ways in which tree growth can be encouraged, the best time to harvest trees, and information that should be considered in context to forest control<ref>Fernow, 1882, 19</ref>. Fernow addressed the idea of the best age for cutting the wood involved a mathematical calculation along with knowledge of the forest. Some of this knowledge included knowing when wood had hit its peak and had just started to decline<ref>Fernow, 1882, 22</ref>. He also characterized wood in two ways, "log-wood", "billets" and "brush" wood<ref>Fernow, 1882, 20</ref>. Fernow also made an observation which was that beech and spruce forests do not exhaust soil nutrients even over thousands of years of occupation<ref>Fernow, 1882, 25</ref>.

According to Fernow, the weight of charcoal, if properly prepared and housed, is practically a constant factor, since most charcoal is not used fresh, but rather used after weeks when it has absorbed almost all amounts of moisture (up to 10 to 15 per cent)<ref>Bernhard, 1882, 21</ref>. Because of this Fernow believed that charcoal should be sold by weight, not by the bushel since it had a relatively consistent weight<ref>Fernow, 1882, 21</ref>.
Fernow believed that a low yield of charcoal was due to the woodcutters. This is because woodcutters had to use a specific type of wood and a specific length of stick to cut<ref>Fernow, 1882, 19</ref>.

=Notes=

=References=
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1883. “Planting in Waste Places.” The American Journal of Forestry, January, 153–55.
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1882. “The Yield of Wood and When to Cut It.” Journal of the United States Association of Charcoal Iron Workers 3 (1): 19–26.
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1885. "Should our Charcoal in the Future Be Produced From Coppice or Timber Forest?" Journal of the United States Association of Charcoal Iron Workers 6: 272-281

Bernhard Fernow (1851-1923)

2020-10-12T15:52:15Z

Jakob.kidd: /* Background */

=Background=

Bernhard Fernow was born in the Prussian Province of Posen. In Prussia, Fernow spent a year in the Prussian forest service prior to studying at the University of Königsberg and the Royal Prussian Academy of Forestry at Münden<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernhard_Fernow</ref>. He emigrated to the Unites States in 1876 after marrying his wife Olivia Reynolds, who actively helped him in many of his later projects. Fernow worked many various jobs up until 1878. During this year, he got the opportunity to manage 15,000 acres of woods in Pennsylvania which was primarily used to obtain charcoal. In 1886, Fernow was named the third Chief of the USDA's Division of Forestry of the United States until 1898<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernhard_Fernow#cite_note-anb-5</ref>.
During his time as Chief his main policy goals were the establishment of a national forest system and the introduction of scientific forest management. Fernow produced many scientific reports to protect watersheds while working toward the creation of national forests. During the 1893 Chicago World's Fair, Fernow helped create forestry exhibits that generated much needed public support for the establishment of a Prussian inspired national forest system in the United States<ref>Twight, B.W. 1990. Bernhard Fernow and Prussian forestry in America. [[Journal of Forestry|J For]] 88(2):21-25</ref>. As the head of the USDA's Forestry Division, Fernow helped create the Forest Reserve Act of 1891 and the Organic Act of 1897. After his time as Chief of the USDA's Division of Forestry came to an end, Fernow became the first dean of the New York State College of Forestry at Cornell. This was the first four-year forestry school in the United States at the time. However, Fernow's time as dean of the school was not particularly fruitful. The program was shut down in 1903 by the New York State government as the program was unpopular due to its clear-cutting and the fires it caused<ref>Charles Z. Lincoln, ed. (1910) ''Messages from the Governors', vol. X, Albany, p. 555, cited in Colman, Gould P. (1963) ''Education & Agriculture, A History of the NYS College of Agriculture at Cornell University'', Cornell University Press, p.161.</ref><ref>Gove, B. 2005. Logging railroads of the Adirondacks. Syracuse University Press. pp. 176-181.</ref>. During this same time many wildfires were happening in the area due to the sparks from locomotive stacks landing on log stashes. Louis Marshall, an American constitution and civil-rights lawyer, branded locomotives as an "instrument of arson"<ref>Angus, Christopher.The extraordinary Adirondack journey of Clarence Petty: wilderness guide, pilot, and conservationist, p.17</ref>.Unfortunately, Bernhard Fernow was aware of this and continued to build this controversial railroad system that stretched 6 miles and was primarily used to transport wood. However, In 1907 Bernhard Fernow became the founding dean of the University of Toronto's Faculty of Forestry, this was Canadas first university school devoted to forest fire. To date, Fernow is known to be called the "father of professional forestry in the United States."

=Waste Places=
Fernow noticed that the bulk of American papers which recommended methods for planting forests did not account for places with poor growing conditions. These places were deemed to be "Waste Places" by Fernow. He describes these waste places as areas that will not grow grass's or any other crops<ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>. The locations of these areas were typically places with inadequate soil structure and/or had problems with water. Fernow describes waste Places as unusable because they are either stony, too wet or too dry. Wet locations do not drain well enough, and dry areas can be too sandy for agricultural use <ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>. Furthermore, Fernow believed it was important to learn how to properly "forest" these areas because the interests of agriculture will ultimately confine forests to these places<ref>Fernow 1883, 153-154</ref>. His vision of forestry was different. In a letter addressed to fellow engineers he talks about poor forest management, and the effects on timber. He also predicted that if "recklessness, wastefulness, and ignorance" continue it would lead to timber "scarcity, high prices, and injurious influences on all industries using wood"<ref>Fernow 1885, 272-281</ref>. Fernow did indeed believe he had a solution for these waste places. He believed that by encouraging tree growth in these areas, they can, in time, become improved enough and will gain value and be sufficient enough to grow crops <ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>.

In One of Fernow’s writings, “Planting in Waste Places,” he describes the conditions of how the land needs to be in order to produce the most successful yield. According to Fernow, plots of land that are too arid, for example prairie’s, don't serve much of a purpose and land that is too wet won’t produce any good crops. He then goes on to describe an instrument that was extremely helpful in the planting of millions of young pines every year. This tool is made up of two parts: the shoe, which was made of iron with one rounded and one flat side, tapering towards the end, the shape a half cone, so that when two of these shoes placed together, with the flat sides, it would create a perfect cone. The second part which is located in the center of the shoe has a threaded hole to receive the handle. The handle consists of a five-eighths inch rod, three and one/half feet long, with a squarely set wood shaft <ref>Fernow 1883 155-156</ref>. At first glance the tool resembles a carrot dangling by a rope on a piece of wood. It is used by throwing the iron cone into the ground where the plant is to stand. A hole is made by moving the cone back and forth. The plant would then be placed within the hole that was created by using this instrument.

=Yield of Wood and When to Cut It=
The purpose of this article was to answer questions of how trees grow, ways in which tree growth can be encouraged, the best time to harvest trees, and information that should be considered in context to forest control<ref>Fernow, 1882, 19</ref>. Fernow addressed the idea of the best age for cutting the wood involved a mathematical calculation along with knowledge of the forest. Some of this knowledge included knowing when wood had hit its peak and had just started to decline<ref>Fernow, 1882, 22</ref>. He also characterized wood in two ways, "log-wood", "billets" and "brush" wood<ref>Fernow, 1882, 20</ref>. Fernow also made an observation which was that beech and spruce forests do not exhaust soil nutrients even over thousands of years of occupation<ref>Fernow, 1882, 25</ref>.

According to Fernow, the weight of charcoal, if properly prepared and housed, is practically a constant factor, since most charcoal is not used fresh, but rather used after weeks when it has absorbed almost all amounts of moisture (up to 10 to 15 per cent)<ref>Bernhard, 1882, 21</ref>. Because of this Fernow believed that charcoal should be sold by weight, not by the bushel since it had a relatively consistent weight<ref>Fernow, 1882, 21</ref>.
Fernow believed that a low yield of charcoal was due to the woodcutters. This is because woodcutters had to use a specific type of wood and a specific length of stick to cut<ref>Fernow, 1882, 19</ref>.

=Notes=

=References=
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1883. “Planting in Waste Places.” The American Journal of Forestry, January, 153–55.
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1882. “The Yield of Wood and When to Cut It.” Journal of the United States Association of Charcoal Iron Workers 3 (1): 19–26.
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1885. "Should our Charcoal in the Future Be Produced From Coppice or Timber Forest?" Journal of the United States Association of Charcoal Iron Workers 6: 272-281

Bernhard Fernow (1851-1923)

2020-10-12T15:50:48Z

Jakob.kidd: /* Background */

=Background=

Bernhard Fernow was born in the Prussian Province of Posen. In Prussia, Fernow spent a year in the Prussian forest service prior to studying at the University of Königsberg and the Royal Prussian Academy of Forestry at Münden<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernhard_Fernow#cite_note-anb-5</ref>. He emigrated to the Unites States in 1876 after marrying his wife Olivia Reynolds, who actively helped him in many of his later projects. Fernow worked many various jobs up until 1878. During this year, he got the opportunity to manage 15,000 acres of woods in Pennsylvania which was primarily used to obtain charcoal. In 1886, Fernow was named the third Chief of the USDA's Division of Forestry of the United States until 1898<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernhard_Fernow#cite_note-anb-5</ref>.
During his time as Chief his main policy goals were the establishment of a national forest system and the introduction of scientific forest management. Fernow produced many scientific reports to protect watersheds while working toward the creation of national forests. During the 1893 Chicago World's Fair, Fernow helped create forestry exhibits that generated much needed public support for the establishment of a Prussian inspired national forest system in the United States<ref>Twight, B.W. 1990. Bernhard Fernow and Prussian forestry in America. [[Journal of Forestry|J For]] 88(2):21-25</ref>. As the head of the USDA's Forestry Division, Fernow helped create the Forest Reserve Act of 1891 and the Organic Act of 1897. After his time as Chief of the USDA's Division of Forestry came to an end, Fernow became the first dean of the New York State College of Forestry at Cornell. This was the first four-year forestry school in the United States at the time. However, Fernow's time as dean of the school was not particularly fruitful. The program was shut down in 1903 by the New York State government as the program was unpopular due to its clear-cutting and the fires it caused<ref>Charles Z. Lincoln, ed. (1910) ''Messages from the Governors', vol. X, Albany, p. 555, cited in Colman, Gould P. (1963) ''Education & Agriculture, A History of the NYS College of Agriculture at Cornell University'', Cornell University Press, p.161.</ref><ref>Gove, B. 2005. Logging railroads of the Adirondacks. Syracuse University Press. pp. 176-181.</ref>. During this same time many wildfires were happening in the area due to the sparks from locomotive stacks landing on log stashes. Louis Marshall, an American constitution and civil-rights lawyer, branded locomotives as an "instrument of arson"<ref>Angus, Christopher.The extraordinary Adirondack journey of Clarence Petty: wilderness guide, pilot, and conservationist, p.17</ref>.Unfortunately, Bernhard Fernow was aware of this and continued to build this controversial railroad system that stretched 6 miles and was primarily used to transport wood. However, In 1907 Bernhard Fernow became the founding dean of the University of Toronto's Faculty of Forestry, this was Canadas first university school devoted to forest fire. To date, Fernow is known to be called the "father of professional forestry in the United States."

=Waste Places=
Fernow noticed that the bulk of American papers which recommended methods for planting forests did not account for places with poor growing conditions. These places were deemed to be "Waste Places" by Fernow. He describes these waste places as areas that will not grow grass's or any other crops<ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>. The locations of these areas were typically places with inadequate soil structure and/or had problems with water. Fernow describes waste Places as unusable because they are either stony, too wet or too dry. Wet locations do not drain well enough, and dry areas can be too sandy for agricultural use <ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>. Furthermore, Fernow believed it was important to learn how to properly "forest" these areas because the interests of agriculture will ultimately confine forests to these places<ref>Fernow 1883, 153-154</ref>. His vision of forestry was different. In a letter addressed to fellow engineers he talks about poor forest management, and the effects on timber. He also predicted that if "recklessness, wastefulness, and ignorance" continue it would lead to timber "scarcity, high prices, and injurious influences on all industries using wood"<ref>Fernow 1885, 272-281</ref>. Fernow did indeed believe he had a solution for these waste places. He believed that by encouraging tree growth in these areas, they can, in time, become improved enough and will gain value and be sufficient enough to grow crops <ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>.

In One of Fernow’s writings, “Planting in Waste Places,” he describes the conditions of how the land needs to be in order to produce the most successful yield. According to Fernow, plots of land that are too arid, for example prairie’s, don't serve much of a purpose and land that is too wet won’t produce any good crops. He then goes on to describe an instrument that was extremely helpful in the planting of millions of young pines every year. This tool is made up of two parts: the shoe, which was made of iron with one rounded and one flat side, tapering towards the end, the shape a half cone, so that when two of these shoes placed together, with the flat sides, it would create a perfect cone. The second part which is located in the center of the shoe has a threaded hole to receive the handle. The handle consists of a five-eighths inch rod, three and one/half feet long, with a squarely set wood shaft <ref>Fernow 1883 155-156</ref>. At first glance the tool resembles a carrot dangling by a rope on a piece of wood. It is used by throwing the iron cone into the ground where the plant is to stand. A hole is made by moving the cone back and forth. The plant would then be placed within the hole that was created by using this instrument.

=Yield of Wood and When to Cut It=
The purpose of this article was to answer questions of how trees grow, ways in which tree growth can be encouraged, the best time to harvest trees, and information that should be considered in context to forest control<ref>Fernow, 1882, 19</ref>. Fernow addressed the idea of the best age for cutting the wood involved a mathematical calculation along with knowledge of the forest. Some of this knowledge included knowing when wood had hit its peak and had just started to decline<ref>Fernow, 1882, 22</ref>. He also characterized wood in two ways, "log-wood", "billets" and "brush" wood<ref>Fernow, 1882, 20</ref>. Fernow also made an observation which was that beech and spruce forests do not exhaust soil nutrients even over thousands of years of occupation<ref>Fernow, 1882, 25</ref>.

According to Fernow, the weight of charcoal, if properly prepared and housed, is practically a constant factor, since most charcoal is not used fresh, but rather used after weeks when it has absorbed almost all amounts of moisture (up to 10 to 15 per cent)<ref>Bernhard, 1882, 21</ref>. Because of this Fernow believed that charcoal should be sold by weight, not by the bushel since it had a relatively consistent weight<ref>Fernow, 1882, 21</ref>.
Fernow believed that a low yield of charcoal was due to the woodcutters. This is because woodcutters had to use a specific type of wood and a specific length of stick to cut<ref>Fernow, 1882, 19</ref>.

=Notes=

=References=
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1883. “Planting in Waste Places.” The American Journal of Forestry, January, 153–55.
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1882. “The Yield of Wood and When to Cut It.” Journal of the United States Association of Charcoal Iron Workers 3 (1): 19–26.
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1885. "Should our Charcoal in the Future Be Produced From Coppice or Timber Forest?" Journal of the United States Association of Charcoal Iron Workers 6: 272-281

Bernhard Fernow (1851-1923)

2020-10-12T15:48:54Z

Jakob.kidd: /* Background */

=Background=

Bernhard Fernow was born in the Prussian Province of Posen. In Prussia, Fernow spent a year in the Prussian forest service prior to studying at the University of Königsberg and the Royal Prussian Academy of Forestry at Münden<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernhard_Fernow#cite_note-anb-5</ref>. He emigrated to the Unites States in 1876 after marrying his wife Olivia Reynolds, who actively helped him in many of his later projects. Fernow worked many various jobs up until 1878. During this year, he got the opportunity to manage 15,000 acres of woods in Pennsylvania which was primarily used to obtain charcoal. In 1886, Fernow was named the third Chief of the USDA's Division of Forestry of the United States until 1898.
During his time as Chief his main policy goals were the establishment of a national forest system and the introduction of scientific forest management. Fernow produced many scientific reports to protect watersheds while working toward the creation of national forests. During the 1893 Chicago World's Fair, Fernow helped create forestry exhibits that generated much needed public support for the establishment of a Prussian inspired national forest system in the United States<ref>Twight, B.W. 1990. Bernhard Fernow and Prussian forestry in America. [[Journal of Forestry|J For]] 88(2):21-25</ref>. As the head of the USDA's Forestry Division, Fernow helped create the Forest Reserve Act of 1891 and the Organic Act of 1897. After his time as Chief of the USDA's Division of Forestry came to an end, Fernow became the first dean of the New York State College of Forestry at Cornell. This was the first four-year forestry school in the United States at the time. However, Fernow's time as dean of the school was not particularly fruitful. The program was shut down in 1903 by the New York State government as the program was unpopular due to its clear-cutting and the fires it caused<ref>Charles Z. Lincoln, ed. (1910) ''Messages from the Governors', vol. X, Albany, p. 555, cited in Colman, Gould P. (1963) ''Education & Agriculture, A History of the NYS College of Agriculture at Cornell University'', Cornell University Press, p.161.</ref><ref>Gove, B. 2005. Logging railroads of the Adirondacks. Syracuse University Press. pp. 176-181.</ref>. During this same time many wildfires were happening in the area due to the sparks from locomotive stacks landing on log stashes. Louis Marshall, an American constitution and civil-rights lawyer, branded locomotives as an "instrument of arson"<ref>Angus, Christopher.The extraordinary Adirondack journey of Clarence Petty: wilderness guide, pilot, and conservationist, p.17</ref>.Unfortunately, Bernhard Fernow was aware of this and continued to build this controversial railroad system that stretched 6 miles and was primarily used to transport wood. However, In 1907 Bernhard Fernow became the founding dean of the University of Toronto's Faculty of Forestry, this was Canadas first university school devoted to forest fire. To date, Fernow is known to be called the "father of professional forestry in the United States."

=Waste Places=
Fernow noticed that the bulk of American papers which recommended methods for planting forests did not account for places with poor growing conditions. These places were deemed to be "Waste Places" by Fernow. He describes these waste places as areas that will not grow grass's or any other crops<ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>. The locations of these areas were typically places with inadequate soil structure and/or had problems with water. Fernow describes waste Places as unusable because they are either stony, too wet or too dry. Wet locations do not drain well enough, and dry areas can be too sandy for agricultural use <ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>. Furthermore, Fernow believed it was important to learn how to properly "forest" these areas because the interests of agriculture will ultimately confine forests to these places<ref>Fernow 1883, 153-154</ref>. His vision of forestry was different. In a letter addressed to fellow engineers he talks about poor forest management, and the effects on timber. He also predicted that if "recklessness, wastefulness, and ignorance" continue it would lead to timber "scarcity, high prices, and injurious influences on all industries using wood"<ref>Fernow 1885, 272-281</ref>. Fernow did indeed believe he had a solution for these waste places. He believed that by encouraging tree growth in these areas, they can, in time, become improved enough and will gain value and be sufficient enough to grow crops <ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>.

In One of Fernow’s writings, “Planting in Waste Places,” he describes the conditions of how the land needs to be in order to produce the most successful yield. According to Fernow, plots of land that are too arid, for example prairie’s, don't serve much of a purpose and land that is too wet won’t produce any good crops. He then goes on to describe an instrument that was extremely helpful in the planting of millions of young pines every year. This tool is made up of two parts: the shoe, which was made of iron with one rounded and one flat side, tapering towards the end, the shape a half cone, so that when two of these shoes placed together, with the flat sides, it would create a perfect cone. The second part which is located in the center of the shoe has a threaded hole to receive the handle. The handle consists of a five-eighths inch rod, three and one/half feet long, with a squarely set wood shaft <ref>Fernow 1883 155-156</ref>. At first glance the tool resembles a carrot dangling by a rope on a piece of wood. It is used by throwing the iron cone into the ground where the plant is to stand. A hole is made by moving the cone back and forth. The plant would then be placed within the hole that was created by using this instrument.

=Yield of Wood and When to Cut It=
The purpose of this article was to answer questions of how trees grow, ways in which tree growth can be encouraged, the best time to harvest trees, and information that should be considered in context to forest control<ref>Fernow, 1882, 19</ref>. Fernow addressed the idea of the best age for cutting the wood involved a mathematical calculation along with knowledge of the forest. Some of this knowledge included knowing when wood had hit its peak and had just started to decline<ref>Fernow, 1882, 22</ref>. He also characterized wood in two ways, "log-wood", "billets" and "brush" wood<ref>Fernow, 1882, 20</ref>. Fernow also made an observation which was that beech and spruce forests do not exhaust soil nutrients even over thousands of years of occupation<ref>Fernow, 1882, 25</ref>.

According to Fernow, the weight of charcoal, if properly prepared and housed, is practically a constant factor, since most charcoal is not used fresh, but rather used after weeks when it has absorbed almost all amounts of moisture (up to 10 to 15 per cent)<ref>Bernhard, 1882, 21</ref>. Because of this Fernow believed that charcoal should be sold by weight, not by the bushel since it had a relatively consistent weight<ref>Fernow, 1882, 21</ref>.
Fernow believed that a low yield of charcoal was due to the woodcutters. This is because woodcutters had to use a specific type of wood and a specific length of stick to cut<ref>Fernow, 1882, 19</ref>.

=Notes=

=References=
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1883. “Planting in Waste Places.” The American Journal of Forestry, January, 153–55.
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1882. “The Yield of Wood and When to Cut It.” Journal of the United States Association of Charcoal Iron Workers 3 (1): 19–26.
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1885. "Should our Charcoal in the Future Be Produced From Coppice or Timber Forest?" Journal of the United States Association of Charcoal Iron Workers 6: 272-281

Bernhard Fernow (1851-1923)

2020-10-08T21:18:14Z

Jakob.kidd: /* References */

=Background=

Bernhard Fernow was born in the Prussian Province of Posen. In Prussia, Fernow spent a year in the Prussian forest service prior to studying at the University of Königsberg and the Royal Prussian Academy of Forestry at Münden(Fernow wiki). He emigrated to the Unites States in 1876 after marrying his wife Olivia Reynolds, who actively helped him in many of his later projects. Fernow worked many various jobs up until 1878. During this year, he got the opportunity to manage 15,000 acres of woods in Pennsylvania which was primarily used to obtain charcoal. In 1886, Fernow was named the third Chief of the USDA's Division of Forestry of the United States until 1898.
During his time as Chief his main policy goals were the establishment of a national forest system and the introduction of scientific forest management. Fernow produced many scientific reports to protect watersheds while working toward the creation of national forests. During the 1893 Chicago World's Fair, Fernow helped create forestry exhibits that generated much needed public support for the establishment of a Prussian inspired national forest system in the United States<ref>Twight, B.W. 1990. Bernhard Fernow and Prussian forestry in America. [[Journal of Forestry|J For]] 88(2):21-25</ref>. As the head of the USDA's Forestry Division, Fernow helped create the Forest Reserve Act of 1891 and the Organic Act of 1897. After his time as Chief of the USDA's Division of Forestry came to an end, Fernow became the first dean of the New York State College of Forestry at Cornell. This was the first four-year forestry school in the United States at the time. However, Fernow's time as dean of the school was not particularly fruitful. The program was shut down in 1903 by the New York State government as the program was unpopular due to its clear-cutting and the fires it caused<ref>Charles Z. Lincoln, ed. (1910) ''Messages from the Governors', vol. X, Albany, p. 555, cited in Colman, Gould P. (1963) ''Education & Agriculture, A History of the NYS College of Agriculture at Cornell University'', Cornell University Press, p.161.</ref><ref>Gove, B. 2005. Logging railroads of the Adirondacks. Syracuse University Press. pp. 176-181.</ref>. During this same time many wildfires were happening in the area due to the sparks from locomotive stacks landing on log stashes. Louis Marshall, an American constitution and civil-rights lawyer, branded locomotives as an "instrument of arson"<ref>Angus, Christopher.The extraordinary Adirondack journey of Clarence Petty: wilderness guide, pilot, and conservationist, p.17</ref>.Unfortunately, Bernhard Fernow was aware of this and continued to build this controversial railroad system that stretched 6 miles and was primarily used to transport wood. However, In 1907 Bernhard Fernow became the founding dean of the University of Toronto's Faculty of Forestry, this was Canadas first university school devoted to forest fire. To date, Fernow is known to be called the "father of professional forestry in the United States."

=Waste Places=
Fernow noticed that the bulk of American papers which recommended methods for planting forests did not account for places with poor growing conditions. These places were deemed to be "Waste Places" by Fernow. He describes these waste places as areas that will not grow grass's or any other crops<ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>. The locations of these areas were typically places with inadequate soil structure and/or had problems with water. Fernow describes waste Places as unusable because they are either stony, too wet or too dry. Wet locations do not drain well enough, and dry areas can be too sandy for agricultural use <ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>. Furthermore, Fernow believed it was important to learn how to properly "forest" these areas because the interests of agriculture will ultimately confine forests to these places<ref>Fernow 1883, 153-154</ref>. His vision of forestry was different. In a letter addressed to fellow engineers he talks about poor forest management, and the effects on timber. He also predicted that if "recklessness, wastefulness, and ignorance" continue it would lead to timber "scarcity, high prices, and injurious influences on all industries using wood"<ref>Fernow 1885, 272-281</ref>. Fernow did indeed believe he had a solution for these waste places. He believed that by encouraging tree growth in these areas, they can, in time, become improved enough and will gain value and be sufficient enough to grow crops <ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>.

In One of Fernow’s writings, “Planting in Waste Places,” he describes the conditions of how the land needs to be in order to produce the most successful yield. According to Fernow, plots of land that are too arid, for example prairie’s, don't serve much of a purpose and land that is too wet won’t produce any good crops. He then goes on to describe an instrument that was extremely helpful in the planting of millions of young pines every year. This tool is made up of two parts: the shoe, which was made of iron with one rounded and one flat side, tapering towards the end, the shape a half cone, so that when two of these shoes placed together, with the flat sides, it would create a perfect cone. The second part which is located in the center of the shoe has a threaded hole to receive the handle. The handle consists of a five-eighths inch rod, three and one/half feet long, with a squarely set wood shaft <ref>Fernow 1883 155-156</ref>. At first glance the tool resembles a carrot dangling by a rope on a piece of wood. It is used by throwing the iron cone into the ground where the plant is to stand. A hole is made by moving the cone back and forth. The plant would then be placed within the hole that was created by using this instrument.

=Yield of Wood and When to Cut It=
The purpose of this article was to answer questions of how trees grow, ways in which tree growth can be encouraged, the best time to harvest trees, and information that should be considered in context to forest control<ref>Fernow, 1882, 19</ref>. Fernow addressed the idea of the best age for cutting the wood involved a mathematical calculation along with knowledge of the forest. Some of this knowledge included knowing when wood had hit its peak and had just started to decline<ref>Fernow, 1882, 22</ref>. He also characterized wood in two ways, "log-wood", "billets" and "brush" wood<ref>Fernow, 1882, 20</ref>. Fernow also made an observation which was that beech and spruce forests do not exhaust soil nutrients even over thousands of years of occupation<ref>Fernow, 1882, 25</ref>.

According to Fernow, the weight of charcoal, if properly prepared and housed, is practically a constant factor, since most charcoal is not used fresh, but rather used after weeks when it has absorbed almost all amounts of moisture (up to 10 to 15 per cent)<ref>Bernhard, 1882, 21</ref>. Because of this Fernow believed that charcoal should be sold by weight, not by the bushel since it had a relatively consistent weight<ref>Fernow, 1882, 21</ref>.
Fernow believed that a low yield of charcoal was due to the woodcutters. This is because woodcutters had to use a specific type of wood and a specific length of stick to cut<ref>Fernow, 1882, 19</ref>.

=Notes=

=References=
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1883. “Planting in Waste Places.” The American Journal of Forestry, January, 153–55.
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1882. “The Yield of Wood and When to Cut It.” Journal of the United States Association of Charcoal Iron Workers 3 (1): 19–26.
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1885. "Should our Charcoal in the Future Be Produced From Coppice or Timber Forest?" Journal of the United States Association of Charcoal Iron Workers 6: 272-281

Bernhard Fernow (1851-1923)

2020-10-08T21:16:58Z

Jakob.kidd: /* Waste Places */

=Background=

Bernhard Fernow was born in the Prussian Province of Posen. In Prussia, Fernow spent a year in the Prussian forest service prior to studying at the University of Königsberg and the Royal Prussian Academy of Forestry at Münden(Fernow wiki). He emigrated to the Unites States in 1876 after marrying his wife Olivia Reynolds, who actively helped him in many of his later projects. Fernow worked many various jobs up until 1878. During this year, he got the opportunity to manage 15,000 acres of woods in Pennsylvania which was primarily used to obtain charcoal. In 1886, Fernow was named the third Chief of the USDA's Division of Forestry of the United States until 1898.
During his time as Chief his main policy goals were the establishment of a national forest system and the introduction of scientific forest management. Fernow produced many scientific reports to protect watersheds while working toward the creation of national forests. During the 1893 Chicago World's Fair, Fernow helped create forestry exhibits that generated much needed public support for the establishment of a Prussian inspired national forest system in the United States<ref>Twight, B.W. 1990. Bernhard Fernow and Prussian forestry in America. [[Journal of Forestry|J For]] 88(2):21-25</ref>. As the head of the USDA's Forestry Division, Fernow helped create the Forest Reserve Act of 1891 and the Organic Act of 1897. After his time as Chief of the USDA's Division of Forestry came to an end, Fernow became the first dean of the New York State College of Forestry at Cornell. This was the first four-year forestry school in the United States at the time. However, Fernow's time as dean of the school was not particularly fruitful. The program was shut down in 1903 by the New York State government as the program was unpopular due to its clear-cutting and the fires it caused<ref>Charles Z. Lincoln, ed. (1910) ''Messages from the Governors', vol. X, Albany, p. 555, cited in Colman, Gould P. (1963) ''Education & Agriculture, A History of the NYS College of Agriculture at Cornell University'', Cornell University Press, p.161.</ref><ref>Gove, B. 2005. Logging railroads of the Adirondacks. Syracuse University Press. pp. 176-181.</ref>. During this same time many wildfires were happening in the area due to the sparks from locomotive stacks landing on log stashes. Louis Marshall, an American constitution and civil-rights lawyer, branded locomotives as an "instrument of arson"<ref>Angus, Christopher.The extraordinary Adirondack journey of Clarence Petty: wilderness guide, pilot, and conservationist, p.17</ref>.Unfortunately, Bernhard Fernow was aware of this and continued to build this controversial railroad system that stretched 6 miles and was primarily used to transport wood. However, In 1907 Bernhard Fernow became the founding dean of the University of Toronto's Faculty of Forestry, this was Canadas first university school devoted to forest fire. To date, Fernow is known to be called the "father of professional forestry in the United States."

=Waste Places=
Fernow noticed that the bulk of American papers which recommended methods for planting forests did not account for places with poor growing conditions. These places were deemed to be "Waste Places" by Fernow. He describes these waste places as areas that will not grow grass's or any other crops<ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>. The locations of these areas were typically places with inadequate soil structure and/or had problems with water. Fernow describes waste Places as unusable because they are either stony, too wet or too dry. Wet locations do not drain well enough, and dry areas can be too sandy for agricultural use <ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>. Furthermore, Fernow believed it was important to learn how to properly "forest" these areas because the interests of agriculture will ultimately confine forests to these places<ref>Fernow 1883, 153-154</ref>. His vision of forestry was different. In a letter addressed to fellow engineers he talks about poor forest management, and the effects on timber. He also predicted that if "recklessness, wastefulness, and ignorance" continue it would lead to timber "scarcity, high prices, and injurious influences on all industries using wood"<ref>Fernow 1885, 272-281</ref>. Fernow did indeed believe he had a solution for these waste places. He believed that by encouraging tree growth in these areas, they can, in time, become improved enough and will gain value and be sufficient enough to grow crops <ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>.

In One of Fernow’s writings, “Planting in Waste Places,” he describes the conditions of how the land needs to be in order to produce the most successful yield. According to Fernow, plots of land that are too arid, for example prairie’s, don't serve much of a purpose and land that is too wet won’t produce any good crops. He then goes on to describe an instrument that was extremely helpful in the planting of millions of young pines every year. This tool is made up of two parts: the shoe, which was made of iron with one rounded and one flat side, tapering towards the end, the shape a half cone, so that when two of these shoes placed together, with the flat sides, it would create a perfect cone. The second part which is located in the center of the shoe has a threaded hole to receive the handle. The handle consists of a five-eighths inch rod, three and one/half feet long, with a squarely set wood shaft <ref>Fernow 1883 155-156</ref>. At first glance the tool resembles a carrot dangling by a rope on a piece of wood. It is used by throwing the iron cone into the ground where the plant is to stand. A hole is made by moving the cone back and forth. The plant would then be placed within the hole that was created by using this instrument.

=Yield of Wood and When to Cut It=
The purpose of this article was to answer questions of how trees grow, ways in which tree growth can be encouraged, the best time to harvest trees, and information that should be considered in context to forest control<ref>Fernow, 1882, 19</ref>. Fernow addressed the idea of the best age for cutting the wood involved a mathematical calculation along with knowledge of the forest. Some of this knowledge included knowing when wood had hit its peak and had just started to decline<ref>Fernow, 1882, 22</ref>. He also characterized wood in two ways, "log-wood", "billets" and "brush" wood<ref>Fernow, 1882, 20</ref>. Fernow also made an observation which was that beech and spruce forests do not exhaust soil nutrients even over thousands of years of occupation<ref>Fernow, 1882, 25</ref>.

According to Fernow, the weight of charcoal, if properly prepared and housed, is practically a constant factor, since most charcoal is not used fresh, but rather used after weeks when it has absorbed almost all amounts of moisture (up to 10 to 15 per cent)<ref>Bernhard, 1882, 21</ref>. Because of this Fernow believed that charcoal should be sold by weight, not by the bushel since it had a relatively consistent weight<ref>Fernow, 1882, 21</ref>.
Fernow believed that a low yield of charcoal was due to the woodcutters. This is because woodcutters had to use a specific type of wood and a specific length of stick to cut<ref>Fernow, 1882, 19</ref>.

=Notes=

=References=
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1883. “Planting in Waste Places.” The American Journal of Forestry, January, 153–55.
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1882. “The Yield of Wood and When to Cut It.” Journal of the United States Association of Charcoal Iron Workers 3 (1): 19–26.
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1885. "Should our Charcoal in the Future Be Produced From Coppice or Timber Forest?" Journal of the United States Association of Charcoal Iron Workers 6, 272-281

Bernhard Fernow (1851-1923)

2020-10-08T21:11:03Z

Jakob.kidd: /* References */

=Background=

Bernhard Fernow was born in the Prussian Province of Posen. In Prussia, Fernow spent a year in the Prussian forest service prior to studying at the University of Königsberg and the Royal Prussian Academy of Forestry at Münden(Fernow wiki). He emigrated to the Unites States in 1876 after marrying his wife Olivia Reynolds, who actively helped him in many of his later projects. Fernow worked many various jobs up until 1878. During this year, he got the opportunity to manage 15,000 acres of woods in Pennsylvania which was primarily used to obtain charcoal. In 1886, Fernow was named the third Chief of the USDA's Division of Forestry of the United States until 1898.
During his time as Chief his main policy goals were the establishment of a national forest system and the introduction of scientific forest management. Fernow produced many scientific reports to protect watersheds while working toward the creation of national forests. During the 1893 Chicago World's Fair, Fernow helped create forestry exhibits that generated much needed public support for the establishment of a Prussian inspired national forest system in the United States<ref>Twight, B.W. 1990. Bernhard Fernow and Prussian forestry in America. [[Journal of Forestry|J For]] 88(2):21-25</ref>. As the head of the USDA's Forestry Division, Fernow helped create the Forest Reserve Act of 1891 and the Organic Act of 1897. After his time as Chief of the USDA's Division of Forestry came to an end, Fernow became the first dean of the New York State College of Forestry at Cornell. This was the first four-year forestry school in the United States at the time. However, Fernow's time as dean of the school was not particularly fruitful. The program was shut down in 1903 by the New York State government as the program was unpopular due to its clear-cutting and the fires it caused<ref>Charles Z. Lincoln, ed. (1910) ''Messages from the Governors', vol. X, Albany, p. 555, cited in Colman, Gould P. (1963) ''Education & Agriculture, A History of the NYS College of Agriculture at Cornell University'', Cornell University Press, p.161.</ref><ref>Gove, B. 2005. Logging railroads of the Adirondacks. Syracuse University Press. pp. 176-181.</ref>. During this same time many wildfires were happening in the area due to the sparks from locomotive stacks landing on log stashes. Louis Marshall, an American constitution and civil-rights lawyer, branded locomotives as an "instrument of arson"<ref>Angus, Christopher.The extraordinary Adirondack journey of Clarence Petty: wilderness guide, pilot, and conservationist, p.17</ref>.Unfortunately, Bernhard Fernow was aware of this and continued to build this controversial railroad system that stretched 6 miles and was primarily used to transport wood. However, In 1907 Bernhard Fernow became the founding dean of the University of Toronto's Faculty of Forestry, this was Canadas first university school devoted to forest fire. To date, Fernow is known to be called the "father of professional forestry in the United States."

=Waste Places=
Fernow noticed that the bulk of American papers which recommended methods for planting forests did not account for places with poor growing conditions. These places were deemed to be "Waste Places" by Fernow. He describes these waste places as areas that will not grow grass's or any other crops<ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>. The locations of these areas were typically places with inadequate soil structure and/or had problems with water. Fernow describes waste Places as unusable because they are either stony, too wet or too dry. Wet locations do not drain well enough, and dry areas can be too sandy for agricultural use <ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>. Furthermore, Fernow believed it was important to learn how to properly "forest" these areas because the interests of agriculture will ultimately confine forests to these places<ref>Fernow 1883, 153-154</ref>. His vision of forestry was different. In a letter addressed to fellow engineers he talks about poor forrest management, and the effects on timber. He also predicted that if "recklessness, wastefulness, and ignorance" continue it would lead to timber "scarcity, high prices, and injurious influences on all industries using wood"<ref>Fernow 1885, 272-281</ref>. Fernow did indeed believe he had a solution for these waste places. He believed that by encouraging tree growth in these areas, they can, in time, become improved enough and will gain value and be sufficient enough to grow crops <ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>.

In One of Fernow’s writings, “Planting in Waste Places,” he describes the conditions of how the land needs to be in order to produce the most successful yield. According to Fernow, plots of land that are too arid, for example prairie’s, don't serve much of a purpose and land that is too wet won’t produce any good crops. He then goes on to describe an instrument that was extremely helpful in the planting of millions of young pines every year. This tool is made up of two parts: the shoe, which was made of iron with one rounded and one flat side, tapering towards the end, the shape a half cone, so that when two of these shoes placed together, with the flat sides, it would create a perfect cone. The second part which is located in the center of the shoe has a threaded hole to receive the handle. The handle consists of a five-eighths inch rod, three and one/half feet long, with a squarely set wood shaft <ref>Fernow 1883 155-156</ref>. At first glance the tool resembles a carrot dangling by a rope on a piece of wood. It is used by throwing the iron cone into the ground where the plant is to stand. A hole is made by moving the cone back and forth. The plant would then be placed within the hole that was created by using this instrument.

=Yield of Wood and When to Cut It=
The purpose of this article was to answer questions of how trees grow, ways in which tree growth can be encouraged, the best time to harvest trees, and information that should be considered in context to forest control<ref>Fernow, 1882, 19</ref>. Fernow addressed the idea of the best age for cutting the wood involved a mathematical calculation along with knowledge of the forest. Some of this knowledge included knowing when wood had hit its peak and had just started to decline<ref>Fernow, 1882, 22</ref>. He also characterized wood in two ways, "log-wood", "billets" and "brush" wood<ref>Fernow, 1882, 20</ref>. Fernow also made an observation which was that beech and spruce forests do not exhaust soil nutrients even over thousands of years of occupation<ref>Fernow, 1882, 25</ref>.

According to Fernow, the weight of charcoal, if properly prepared and housed, is practically a constant factor, since most charcoal is not used fresh, but rather used after weeks when it has absorbed almost all amounts of moisture (up to 10 to 15 per cent)<ref>Bernhard, 1882, 21</ref>. Because of this Fernow believed that charcoal should be sold by weight, not by the bushel since it had a relatively consistent weight<ref>Fernow, 1882, 21</ref>.
Fernow believed that a low yield of charcoal was due to the woodcutters. This is because woodcutters had to use a specific type of wood and a specific length of stick to cut<ref>Fernow, 1882, 19</ref>.

=Notes=

=References=
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1883. “Planting in Waste Places.” The American Journal of Forestry, January, 153–55.
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1882. “The Yield of Wood and When to Cut It.” Journal of the United States Association of Charcoal Iron Workers 3 (1): 19–26.
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1885. "Should our Charcoal in the Future Be Produced From Coppice or Timber Forest?" Journal of the United States Association of Charcoal Iron Workers 6, 272-281

Bernhard Fernow (1851-1923)

2020-10-08T21:10:36Z

Jakob.kidd: /* References */

=Background=

Bernhard Fernow was born in the Prussian Province of Posen. In Prussia, Fernow spent a year in the Prussian forest service prior to studying at the University of Königsberg and the Royal Prussian Academy of Forestry at Münden(Fernow wiki). He emigrated to the Unites States in 1876 after marrying his wife Olivia Reynolds, who actively helped him in many of his later projects. Fernow worked many various jobs up until 1878. During this year, he got the opportunity to manage 15,000 acres of woods in Pennsylvania which was primarily used to obtain charcoal. In 1886, Fernow was named the third Chief of the USDA's Division of Forestry of the United States until 1898.
During his time as Chief his main policy goals were the establishment of a national forest system and the introduction of scientific forest management. Fernow produced many scientific reports to protect watersheds while working toward the creation of national forests. During the 1893 Chicago World's Fair, Fernow helped create forestry exhibits that generated much needed public support for the establishment of a Prussian inspired national forest system in the United States<ref>Twight, B.W. 1990. Bernhard Fernow and Prussian forestry in America. [[Journal of Forestry|J For]] 88(2):21-25</ref>. As the head of the USDA's Forestry Division, Fernow helped create the Forest Reserve Act of 1891 and the Organic Act of 1897. After his time as Chief of the USDA's Division of Forestry came to an end, Fernow became the first dean of the New York State College of Forestry at Cornell. This was the first four-year forestry school in the United States at the time. However, Fernow's time as dean of the school was not particularly fruitful. The program was shut down in 1903 by the New York State government as the program was unpopular due to its clear-cutting and the fires it caused<ref>Charles Z. Lincoln, ed. (1910) ''Messages from the Governors', vol. X, Albany, p. 555, cited in Colman, Gould P. (1963) ''Education & Agriculture, A History of the NYS College of Agriculture at Cornell University'', Cornell University Press, p.161.</ref><ref>Gove, B. 2005. Logging railroads of the Adirondacks. Syracuse University Press. pp. 176-181.</ref>. During this same time many wildfires were happening in the area due to the sparks from locomotive stacks landing on log stashes. Louis Marshall, an American constitution and civil-rights lawyer, branded locomotives as an "instrument of arson"<ref>Angus, Christopher.The extraordinary Adirondack journey of Clarence Petty: wilderness guide, pilot, and conservationist, p.17</ref>.Unfortunately, Bernhard Fernow was aware of this and continued to build this controversial railroad system that stretched 6 miles and was primarily used to transport wood. However, In 1907 Bernhard Fernow became the founding dean of the University of Toronto's Faculty of Forestry, this was Canadas first university school devoted to forest fire. To date, Fernow is known to be called the "father of professional forestry in the United States."

=Waste Places=
Fernow noticed that the bulk of American papers which recommended methods for planting forests did not account for places with poor growing conditions. These places were deemed to be "Waste Places" by Fernow. He describes these waste places as areas that will not grow grass's or any other crops<ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>. The locations of these areas were typically places with inadequate soil structure and/or had problems with water. Fernow describes waste Places as unusable because they are either stony, too wet or too dry. Wet locations do not drain well enough, and dry areas can be too sandy for agricultural use <ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>. Furthermore, Fernow believed it was important to learn how to properly "forest" these areas because the interests of agriculture will ultimately confine forests to these places<ref>Fernow 1883, 153-154</ref>. His vision of forestry was different. In a letter addressed to fellow engineers he talks about poor forrest management, and the effects on timber. He also predicted that if "recklessness, wastefulness, and ignorance" continue it would lead to timber "scarcity, high prices, and injurious influences on all industries using wood"<ref>Fernow 1885, 272-281</ref>. Fernow did indeed believe he had a solution for these waste places. He believed that by encouraging tree growth in these areas, they can, in time, become improved enough and will gain value and be sufficient enough to grow crops <ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>.

In One of Fernow’s writings, “Planting in Waste Places,” he describes the conditions of how the land needs to be in order to produce the most successful yield. According to Fernow, plots of land that are too arid, for example prairie’s, don't serve much of a purpose and land that is too wet won’t produce any good crops. He then goes on to describe an instrument that was extremely helpful in the planting of millions of young pines every year. This tool is made up of two parts: the shoe, which was made of iron with one rounded and one flat side, tapering towards the end, the shape a half cone, so that when two of these shoes placed together, with the flat sides, it would create a perfect cone. The second part which is located in the center of the shoe has a threaded hole to receive the handle. The handle consists of a five-eighths inch rod, three and one/half feet long, with a squarely set wood shaft <ref>Fernow 1883 155-156</ref>. At first glance the tool resembles a carrot dangling by a rope on a piece of wood. It is used by throwing the iron cone into the ground where the plant is to stand. A hole is made by moving the cone back and forth. The plant would then be placed within the hole that was created by using this instrument.

=Yield of Wood and When to Cut It=
The purpose of this article was to answer questions of how trees grow, ways in which tree growth can be encouraged, the best time to harvest trees, and information that should be considered in context to forest control<ref>Fernow, 1882, 19</ref>. Fernow addressed the idea of the best age for cutting the wood involved a mathematical calculation along with knowledge of the forest. Some of this knowledge included knowing when wood had hit its peak and had just started to decline<ref>Fernow, 1882, 22</ref>. He also characterized wood in two ways, "log-wood", "billets" and "brush" wood<ref>Fernow, 1882, 20</ref>. Fernow also made an observation which was that beech and spruce forests do not exhaust soil nutrients even over thousands of years of occupation<ref>Fernow, 1882, 25</ref>.

According to Fernow, the weight of charcoal, if properly prepared and housed, is practically a constant factor, since most charcoal is not used fresh, but rather used after weeks when it has absorbed almost all amounts of moisture (up to 10 to 15 per cent)<ref>Bernhard, 1882, 21</ref>. Because of this Fernow believed that charcoal should be sold by weight, not by the bushel since it had a relatively consistent weight<ref>Fernow, 1882, 21</ref>.
Fernow believed that a low yield of charcoal was due to the woodcutters. This is because woodcutters had to use a specific type of wood and a specific length of stick to cut<ref>Fernow, 1882, 19</ref>.

=Notes=

=References=
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1883. “Planting in Waste Places.” The American Journal of Forestry, January, 153–55.
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1882. “The Yield of Wood and When to Cut It.” Journal of the United States Association of Charcoal Iron Workers 3 (1): 19–26.

Fernow, Bernhard E. 1885. "Should our Charcoal in the Future Be Produced From Coppice
or Timber Forest?" Journal of the United States Association of Charcoal Iron Workers 6, 272-281

Bernhard Fernow (1851-1923)

2020-10-08T21:10:21Z

Jakob.kidd: /* References */

=Background=

Bernhard Fernow was born in the Prussian Province of Posen. In Prussia, Fernow spent a year in the Prussian forest service prior to studying at the University of Königsberg and the Royal Prussian Academy of Forestry at Münden(Fernow wiki). He emigrated to the Unites States in 1876 after marrying his wife Olivia Reynolds, who actively helped him in many of his later projects. Fernow worked many various jobs up until 1878. During this year, he got the opportunity to manage 15,000 acres of woods in Pennsylvania which was primarily used to obtain charcoal. In 1886, Fernow was named the third Chief of the USDA's Division of Forestry of the United States until 1898.
During his time as Chief his main policy goals were the establishment of a national forest system and the introduction of scientific forest management. Fernow produced many scientific reports to protect watersheds while working toward the creation of national forests. During the 1893 Chicago World's Fair, Fernow helped create forestry exhibits that generated much needed public support for the establishment of a Prussian inspired national forest system in the United States<ref>Twight, B.W. 1990. Bernhard Fernow and Prussian forestry in America. [[Journal of Forestry|J For]] 88(2):21-25</ref>. As the head of the USDA's Forestry Division, Fernow helped create the Forest Reserve Act of 1891 and the Organic Act of 1897. After his time as Chief of the USDA's Division of Forestry came to an end, Fernow became the first dean of the New York State College of Forestry at Cornell. This was the first four-year forestry school in the United States at the time. However, Fernow's time as dean of the school was not particularly fruitful. The program was shut down in 1903 by the New York State government as the program was unpopular due to its clear-cutting and the fires it caused<ref>Charles Z. Lincoln, ed. (1910) ''Messages from the Governors', vol. X, Albany, p. 555, cited in Colman, Gould P. (1963) ''Education & Agriculture, A History of the NYS College of Agriculture at Cornell University'', Cornell University Press, p.161.</ref><ref>Gove, B. 2005. Logging railroads of the Adirondacks. Syracuse University Press. pp. 176-181.</ref>. During this same time many wildfires were happening in the area due to the sparks from locomotive stacks landing on log stashes. Louis Marshall, an American constitution and civil-rights lawyer, branded locomotives as an "instrument of arson"<ref>Angus, Christopher.The extraordinary Adirondack journey of Clarence Petty: wilderness guide, pilot, and conservationist, p.17</ref>.Unfortunately, Bernhard Fernow was aware of this and continued to build this controversial railroad system that stretched 6 miles and was primarily used to transport wood. However, In 1907 Bernhard Fernow became the founding dean of the University of Toronto's Faculty of Forestry, this was Canadas first university school devoted to forest fire. To date, Fernow is known to be called the "father of professional forestry in the United States."

=Waste Places=
Fernow noticed that the bulk of American papers which recommended methods for planting forests did not account for places with poor growing conditions. These places were deemed to be "Waste Places" by Fernow. He describes these waste places as areas that will not grow grass's or any other crops<ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>. The locations of these areas were typically places with inadequate soil structure and/or had problems with water. Fernow describes waste Places as unusable because they are either stony, too wet or too dry. Wet locations do not drain well enough, and dry areas can be too sandy for agricultural use <ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>. Furthermore, Fernow believed it was important to learn how to properly "forest" these areas because the interests of agriculture will ultimately confine forests to these places<ref>Fernow 1883, 153-154</ref>. His vision of forestry was different. In a letter addressed to fellow engineers he talks about poor forrest management, and the effects on timber. He also predicted that if "recklessness, wastefulness, and ignorance" continue it would lead to timber "scarcity, high prices, and injurious influences on all industries using wood"<ref>Fernow 1885, 272-281</ref>. Fernow did indeed believe he had a solution for these waste places. He believed that by encouraging tree growth in these areas, they can, in time, become improved enough and will gain value and be sufficient enough to grow crops <ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>.

In One of Fernow’s writings, “Planting in Waste Places,” he describes the conditions of how the land needs to be in order to produce the most successful yield. According to Fernow, plots of land that are too arid, for example prairie’s, don't serve much of a purpose and land that is too wet won’t produce any good crops. He then goes on to describe an instrument that was extremely helpful in the planting of millions of young pines every year. This tool is made up of two parts: the shoe, which was made of iron with one rounded and one flat side, tapering towards the end, the shape a half cone, so that when two of these shoes placed together, with the flat sides, it would create a perfect cone. The second part which is located in the center of the shoe has a threaded hole to receive the handle. The handle consists of a five-eighths inch rod, three and one/half feet long, with a squarely set wood shaft <ref>Fernow 1883 155-156</ref>. At first glance the tool resembles a carrot dangling by a rope on a piece of wood. It is used by throwing the iron cone into the ground where the plant is to stand. A hole is made by moving the cone back and forth. The plant would then be placed within the hole that was created by using this instrument.

=Yield of Wood and When to Cut It=
The purpose of this article was to answer questions of how trees grow, ways in which tree growth can be encouraged, the best time to harvest trees, and information that should be considered in context to forest control<ref>Fernow, 1882, 19</ref>. Fernow addressed the idea of the best age for cutting the wood involved a mathematical calculation along with knowledge of the forest. Some of this knowledge included knowing when wood had hit its peak and had just started to decline<ref>Fernow, 1882, 22</ref>. He also characterized wood in two ways, "log-wood", "billets" and "brush" wood<ref>Fernow, 1882, 20</ref>. Fernow also made an observation which was that beech and spruce forests do not exhaust soil nutrients even over thousands of years of occupation<ref>Fernow, 1882, 25</ref>.

According to Fernow, the weight of charcoal, if properly prepared and housed, is practically a constant factor, since most charcoal is not used fresh, but rather used after weeks when it has absorbed almost all amounts of moisture (up to 10 to 15 per cent)<ref>Bernhard, 1882, 21</ref>. Because of this Fernow believed that charcoal should be sold by weight, not by the bushel since it had a relatively consistent weight<ref>Fernow, 1882, 21</ref>.
Fernow believed that a low yield of charcoal was due to the woodcutters. This is because woodcutters had to use a specific type of wood and a specific length of stick to cut<ref>Fernow, 1882, 19</ref>.

=Notes=

=References=
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1883. “Planting in Waste Places.” The American Journal of Forestry, January, 153–55.
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1882. “The Yield of Wood and When to Cut It.” Journal of the United States Association of Charcoal Iron Workers 3 (1): 19–26.
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1885. "Should our Charcoal in the Future Be Produced From Coppice
or Timber Forest?" Journal of the United States Association of Charcoal Iron Workers 6, 272-281

Bernhard Fernow (1851-1923)

2020-10-08T21:05:11Z

Jakob.kidd: /* Waste Places */

=Background=

Bernhard Fernow was born in the Prussian Province of Posen. In Prussia, Fernow spent a year in the Prussian forest service prior to studying at the University of Königsberg and the Royal Prussian Academy of Forestry at Münden(Fernow wiki). He emigrated to the Unites States in 1876 after marrying his wife Olivia Reynolds, who actively helped him in many of his later projects. Fernow worked many various jobs up until 1878. During this year, he got the opportunity to manage 15,000 acres of woods in Pennsylvania which was primarily used to obtain charcoal. In 1886, Fernow was named the third Chief of the USDA's Division of Forestry of the United States until 1898.
During his time as Chief his main policy goals were the establishment of a national forest system and the introduction of scientific forest management. Fernow produced many scientific reports to protect watersheds while working toward the creation of national forests. During the 1893 Chicago World's Fair, Fernow helped create forestry exhibits that generated much needed public support for the establishment of a Prussian inspired national forest system in the United States<ref>Twight, B.W. 1990. Bernhard Fernow and Prussian forestry in America. [[Journal of Forestry|J For]] 88(2):21-25</ref>. As the head of the USDA's Forestry Division, Fernow helped create the Forest Reserve Act of 1891 and the Organic Act of 1897. After his time as Chief of the USDA's Division of Forestry came to an end, Fernow became the first dean of the New York State College of Forestry at Cornell. This was the first four-year forestry school in the United States at the time. However, Fernow's time as dean of the school was not particularly fruitful. The program was shut down in 1903 by the New York State government as the program was unpopular due to its clear-cutting and the fires it caused<ref>Charles Z. Lincoln, ed. (1910) ''Messages from the Governors', vol. X, Albany, p. 555, cited in Colman, Gould P. (1963) ''Education & Agriculture, A History of the NYS College of Agriculture at Cornell University'', Cornell University Press, p.161.</ref><ref>Gove, B. 2005. Logging railroads of the Adirondacks. Syracuse University Press. pp. 176-181.</ref>. During this same time many wildfires were happening in the area due to the sparks from locomotive stacks landing on log stashes. Louis Marshall, an American constitution and civil-rights lawyer, branded locomotives as an "instrument of arson"<ref>Angus, Christopher.The extraordinary Adirondack journey of Clarence Petty: wilderness guide, pilot, and conservationist, p.17</ref>.Unfortunately, Bernhard Fernow was aware of this and continued to build this controversial railroad system that stretched 6 miles and was primarily used to transport wood. However, In 1907 Bernhard Fernow became the founding dean of the University of Toronto's Faculty of Forestry, this was Canadas first university school devoted to forest fire. To date, Fernow is known to be called the "father of professional forestry in the United States."

=Waste Places=
Fernow noticed that the bulk of American papers which recommended methods for planting forests did not account for places with poor growing conditions. These places were deemed to be "Waste Places" by Fernow. He describes these waste places as areas that will not grow grass's or any other crops<ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>. The locations of these areas were typically places with inadequate soil structure and/or had problems with water. Fernow describes waste Places as unusable because they are either stony, too wet or too dry. Wet locations do not drain well enough, and dry areas can be too sandy for agricultural use <ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>. Furthermore, Fernow believed it was important to learn how to properly "forest" these areas because the interests of agriculture will ultimately confine forests to these places<ref>Fernow 1883, 153-154</ref>. His vision of forestry was different. In a letter addressed to fellow engineers he talks about poor forrest management, and the effects on timber. He also predicted that if "recklessness, wastefulness, and ignorance" continue it would lead to timber "scarcity, high prices, and injurious influences on all industries using wood"<ref>Fernow 1885, 272-281</ref>. Fernow did indeed believe he had a solution for these waste places. He believed that by encouraging tree growth in these areas, they can, in time, become improved enough and will gain value and be sufficient enough to grow crops <ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>.

In One of Fernow’s writings, “Planting in Waste Places,” he describes the conditions of how the land needs to be in order to produce the most successful yield. According to Fernow, plots of land that are too arid, for example prairie’s, don't serve much of a purpose and land that is too wet won’t produce any good crops. He then goes on to describe an instrument that was extremely helpful in the planting of millions of young pines every year. This tool is made up of two parts: the shoe, which was made of iron with one rounded and one flat side, tapering towards the end, the shape a half cone, so that when two of these shoes placed together, with the flat sides, it would create a perfect cone. The second part which is located in the center of the shoe has a threaded hole to receive the handle. The handle consists of a five-eighths inch rod, three and one/half feet long, with a squarely set wood shaft <ref>Fernow 1883 155-156</ref>. At first glance the tool resembles a carrot dangling by a rope on a piece of wood. It is used by throwing the iron cone into the ground where the plant is to stand. A hole is made by moving the cone back and forth. The plant would then be placed within the hole that was created by using this instrument.

=Yield of Wood and When to Cut It=
The purpose of this article was to answer questions of how trees grow, ways in which tree growth can be encouraged, the best time to harvest trees, and information that should be considered in context to forest control<ref>Fernow, 1882, 19</ref>. Fernow addressed the idea of the best age for cutting the wood involved a mathematical calculation along with knowledge of the forest. Some of this knowledge included knowing when wood had hit its peak and had just started to decline<ref>Fernow, 1882, 22</ref>. He also characterized wood in two ways, "log-wood", "billets" and "brush" wood<ref>Fernow, 1882, 20</ref>. Fernow also made an observation which was that beech and spruce forests do not exhaust soil nutrients even over thousands of years of occupation<ref>Fernow, 1882, 25</ref>.

According to Fernow, the weight of charcoal, if properly prepared and housed, is practically a constant factor, since most charcoal is not used fresh, but rather used after weeks when it has absorbed almost all amounts of moisture (up to 10 to 15 per cent)<ref>Bernhard, 1882, 21</ref>. Because of this Fernow believed that charcoal should be sold by weight, not by the bushel since it had a relatively consistent weight<ref>Fernow, 1882, 21</ref>.
Fernow believed that a low yield of charcoal was due to the woodcutters. This is because woodcutters had to use a specific type of wood and a specific length of stick to cut<ref>Fernow, 1882, 19</ref>.

=Notes=

=References=
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1883. “Planting in Waste Places.” The American Journal of Forestry, January, 153–55.
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1882. “The Yield of Wood and When to Cut It.” Journal of the United States Association of Charcoal Iron Workers 3 (1): 19–26.

Bernhard Fernow (1851-1923)

2020-10-08T20:43:06Z

Jakob.kidd: /* Waste Places */

=Background=

Bernhard Fernow was born in the Prussian Province of Posen. In Prussia, Fernow spent a year in the Prussian forest service prior to studying at the University of Königsberg and the Royal Prussian Academy of Forestry at Münden(Fernow wiki). He emigrated to the Unites States in 1876 after marrying his wife Olivia Reynolds, who actively helped him in many of his later projects. Fernow worked many various jobs up until 1878. During this year, he got the opportunity to manage 15,000 acres of woods in Pennsylvania which was primarily used to obtain charcoal. In 1886, Fernow was named the third Chief of the USDA's Division of Forestry of the United States until 1898.
During his time as Chief his main policy goals were the establishment of a national forest system and the introduction of scientific forest management. Fernow produced many scientific reports to protect watersheds while working toward the creation of national forests. During the 1893 Chicago World's Fair, Fernow helped create forestry exhibits that generated much needed public support for the establishment of a Prussian inspired national forest system in the United States<ref>Twight, B.W. 1990. Bernhard Fernow and Prussian forestry in America. [[Journal of Forestry|J For]] 88(2):21-25</ref>. As the head of the USDA's Forestry Division, Fernow helped create the Forest Reserve Act of 1891 and the Organic Act of 1897. After his time as Chief of the USDA's Division of Forestry came to an end, Fernow became the first dean of the New York State College of Forestry at Cornell. This was the first four-year forestry school in the United States at the time. However, Fernow's time as dean of the school was not particularly fruitful. The program was shut down in 1903 by the New York State government as the program was unpopular due to its clear-cutting and the fires it caused<ref>Charles Z. Lincoln, ed. (1910) ''Messages from the Governors', vol. X, Albany, p. 555, cited in Colman, Gould P. (1963) ''Education & Agriculture, A History of the NYS College of Agriculture at Cornell University'', Cornell University Press, p.161.</ref><ref>Gove, B. 2005. Logging railroads of the Adirondacks. Syracuse University Press. pp. 176-181.</ref>. During this same time many wildfires were happening in the area due to the sparks from locomotive stacks landing on log stashes. Louis Marshall, an American constitution and civil-rights lawyer, branded locomotives as an "instrument of arson"<ref>Angus, Christopher.The extraordinary Adirondack journey of Clarence Petty: wilderness guide, pilot, and conservationist, p.17</ref>.Unfortunately, Bernhard Fernow was aware of this and continued to build this controversial railroad system that stretched 6 miles and was primarily used to transport wood. However, In 1907 Bernhard Fernow became the founding dean of the University of Toronto's Faculty of Forestry, this was Canadas first university school devoted to forest fire. To date, Fernow is known to be called the "father of professional forestry in the United States."

=Waste Places=
Fernow noticed that the bulk of American papers which recommended methods for planting forests did not account for places with poor growing conditions. These places were deemed to be "Waste Places" by Fernow. He describes these waste places as areas that will not grow grass's or any other crops<ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>. The locations of these areas were typically places with inadequate soil structure and/or had problems with water. Fernow describes waste Places as unusable because they are either stony, too wet or too dry. Wet locations do not drain well enough, and dry areas can be too sandy for agricultural use <ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>. Furthermore, Fernow believed it was important to learn how to properly "forest" these areas because the interests of agriculture will ultimately confine forests to these places<ref>Fernow 1883, 153-154</ref>. Fernow did indeed believe he had a solution for these waste places. He believed that by encouraging tree growth in these areas, they can, in time, become improved enough and will gain value and be sufficient enough to grow crops <ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>.

In One of Fernow’s writings, “Planting in Waste Places,” he describes the conditions of how the land needs to be in order to produce the most successful yield. According to Fernow, plots of land that are too arid, for example prairie’s, don't serve much of a purpose and land that is too wet won’t produce any good crops. He then goes on to describe an instrument that was extremely helpful in the planting of millions of young pines every year. This tool is made up of two parts: the shoe, which was made of iron with one rounded and one flat side, tapering towards the end, the shape a half cone, so that when two of these shoes placed together, with the flat sides, it would create a perfect cone. The second part which is located in the center of the shoe has a threaded hole to receive the handle. The handle consists of a five-eighths inch rod, three and one/half feet long, with a squarely set wood shaft <ref>Fernow 1883 155-156</ref>. At first glance the tool resembles a carrot dangling by a rope on a piece of wood. It is used by throwing the iron cone into the ground where the plant is to stand. A hole is made by moving the cone back and forth. The plant would then be placed within the hole that was created by using this instrument.

=Yield of Wood and When to Cut It=
The purpose of this article was to answer questions of how trees grow, ways in which tree growth can be encouraged, the best time to harvest trees, and information that should be considered in context to forest control<ref>Fernow, 1882, 19</ref>. Fernow addressed the idea of the best age for cutting the wood involved a mathematical calculation along with knowledge of the forest. Some of this knowledge included knowing when wood had hit its peak and had just started to decline<ref>Fernow, 1882, 22</ref>. He also characterized wood in two ways, "log-wood", "billets" and "brush" wood<ref>Fernow, 1882, 20</ref>. Fernow also made an observation which was that beech and spruce forests do not exhaust soil nutrients even over thousands of years of occupation<ref>Fernow, 1882, 25</ref>.

According to Fernow, the weight of charcoal, if properly prepared and housed, is practically a constant factor, since most charcoal is not used fresh, but rather used after weeks when it has absorbed almost all amounts of moisture (up to 10 to 15 per cent)<ref>Bernhard, 1882, 21</ref>. Because of this Fernow believed that charcoal should be sold by weight, not by the bushel since it had a relatively consistent weight<ref>Fernow, 1882, 21</ref>.
Fernow believed that a low yield of charcoal was due to the woodcutters. This is because woodcutters had to use a specific type of wood and a specific length of stick to cut<ref>Fernow, 1882, 19</ref>.

=Notes=

=References=
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1883. “Planting in Waste Places.” The American Journal of Forestry, January, 153–55.
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1882. “The Yield of Wood and When to Cut It.” Journal of the United States Association of Charcoal Iron Workers 3 (1): 19–26.

Bernhard Fernow (1851-1923)

2020-10-08T19:29:33Z

Jakob.kidd: /* Waste Places */

=Background=

Bernhard Fernow was born in the Prussian Province of Posen. In Prussia, Fernow spent a year in the Prussian forest service prior to studying at the University of Königsberg and the Royal Prussian Academy of Forestry at Münden(Fernow wiki). He emigrated to the Unites States in 1876 after marrying his wife Olivia Reynolds, who actively helped him in many of his later projects. Fernow worked many various jobs up until 1878. During this year, he got the opportunity to manage 15,000 acres of woods in Pennsylvania which was primarily used to obtain charcoal. In 1886, Fernow was named the third Chief of the USDA's Division of Forestry of the United States until 1898.
During his time as Chief his main policy goals were the establishment of a national forest system and the introduction of scientific forest management. Fernow produced many scientific reports to protect watersheds while working toward the creation of national forests. During the 1893 Chicago World's Fair, Fernow helped create forestry exhibits that generated much needed public support for the establishment of a Prussian inspired national forest system in the United States<ref>Twight, B.W. 1990. Bernhard Fernow and Prussian forestry in America. [[Journal of Forestry|J For]] 88(2):21-25</ref>. As the head of the USDA's Forestry Division, Fernow helped create the Forest Reserve Act of 1891 and the Organic Act of 1897. After his time as Chief of the USDA's Division of Forestry came to an end, Fernow became the first dean of the New York State College of Forestry at Cornell. This was the first four-year forestry school in the United States at the time. However, Fernow's time as dean of the school was not particularly fruitful. The program was shut down in 1903 by the New York State government as the program was unpopular due to its clear-cutting and the fires it caused<ref>Charles Z. Lincoln, ed. (1910) ''Messages from the Governors', vol. X, Albany, p. 555, cited in Colman, Gould P. (1963) ''Education & Agriculture, A History of the NYS College of Agriculture at Cornell University'', Cornell University Press, p.161.</ref><ref>Gove, B. 2005. Logging railroads of the Adirondacks. Syracuse University Press. pp. 176-181.</ref>. During this same time many wildfires were happening in the area due to the sparks from locomotive stacks landing on log stashes. Louis Marshall, an American constitution and civil-rights lawyer, branded locomotives as an "instrument of arson"<ref>Angus, Christopher.The extraordinary Adirondack journey of Clarence Petty: wilderness guide, pilot, and conservationist, p.17</ref>.Unfortunately, Bernhard Fernow was aware of this and continued to build this controversial railroad system that stretched 6 miles and was primarily used to transport wood. However, In 1907 Bernhard Fernow became the founding dean of the University of Toronto's Faculty of Forestry, this was Canadas first university school devoted to forest fire. To date, Fernow is known to be called the "father of professional forestry in the United States."

=Waste Places=
Fernow noticed that the bulk of American papers which recommended methods for planting forests did not account for places with poor growing conditions. These places were deemed to be "Waste Places" by Fernow. He describes these waste places as areas that will not grow grass's or any other crops<ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>. The locations of these areas were typically places with inadequate soil structure and/or had problems with water. Fernow describes waste Places as unusable because they are either stony, too wet or too dry. Wet locations do not drain well enough, and dry areas can be too sandy for agricultural use <ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>. Furthermore, Fernow believed it was important to learn how to properly "forest" these areas because the interests of agriculture will ultimately confine forests to these places<ref>Fernow 1883, 153-154</ref>. Fernow did indeed believe he had a solution for these waste places. He believed that by encouraging tree growth in these areas, they can, in time, become improved enough and will gain value and be sufficient enough to grow crops <ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>.

In One of Fernow’s writings, “Planting in Waste Places,” he describes the conditions of how the land needs to be in order to produce the most successful yield. According to Fernow, plots of land that are too arid, for example prairie’s, don't serve much of a purpose and land that is too wet won’t produce any good crop. He then goes on to describe an instrument that was extremely helpful in the planting of millions of young pines every year. This tool is made up of two parts: the shoe, which was made of iron with one rounded and one flat side, tapering towards the end, the shape a half cone, so that when two of these shoes placed together, with the flat sides, it would create a perfect cone. The second part which is located in the center of the shoe has a threaded hole to receive the handle. The handle consists of a five-eighths inch rod, three and one/half feet long, with a squarely set wood shaft <ref>Fernow 1883 155-156</ref>. At first glance the tool resembles a carrot dangling by a rope on a piece of wood. It is used by throwing the iron cone into the ground where the plant is to stand. A hole is made by moving the cone back and forth. The plant would then be placed within the hole that was created by using this instrument.

=Yield of Wood and When to Cut It=
The purpose of this article was to answer questions of how trees grow, ways in which tree growth can be encouraged, the best time to harvest trees, and information that should be considered in context to forest control<ref>Fernow, 1882, 19</ref>. Fernow addressed the idea of the best age for cutting the wood involved a mathematical calculation along with knowledge of the forest. Some of this knowledge included knowing when wood had hit its peak and had just started to decline<ref>Fernow, 1882, 22</ref>. He also characterized wood in two ways, "log-wood", "billets" and "brush" wood<ref>Fernow, 1882, 20</ref>. Fernow also made an observation which was that beech and spruce forests do not exhaust soil nutrients even over thousands of years of occupation<ref>Fernow, 1882, 25</ref>.

According to Fernow, the weight of charcoal, if properly prepared and housed, is practically a constant factor, since most charcoal is not used fresh, but rather used after weeks when it has absorbed almost all amounts of moisture (up to 10 to 15 per cent)<ref>Bernhard, 1882, 21</ref>. Because of this Fernow believed that charcoal should be sold by weight, not by the bushel since it had a relatively consistent weight<ref>Fernow, 1882, 21</ref>.
Fernow believed that a low yield of charcoal was due to the woodcutters. This is because woodcutters had to use a specific type of wood and a specific length of stick to cut<ref>Fernow, 1882, 19</ref>.

=Notes=

=References=
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1883. “Planting in Waste Places.” The American Journal of Forestry, January, 153–55.
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1882. “The Yield of Wood and When to Cut It.” Journal of the United States Association of Charcoal Iron Workers 3 (1): 19–26.

Bernhard Fernow (1851-1923)

2020-10-08T19:27:39Z

Jakob.kidd: /* Yield of Wood and When to Cut It */

=Background=

Bernhard Fernow was born in the Prussian Province of Posen. In Prussia, Fernow spent a year in the Prussian forest service prior to studying at the University of Königsberg and the Royal Prussian Academy of Forestry at Münden(Fernow wiki). He emigrated to the Unites States in 1876 after marrying his wife Olivia Reynolds, who actively helped him in many of his later projects. Fernow worked many various jobs up until 1878. During this year, he got the opportunity to manage 15,000 acres of woods in Pennsylvania which was primarily used to obtain charcoal. In 1886, Fernow was named the third Chief of the USDA's Division of Forestry of the United States until 1898.
During his time as Chief his main policy goals were the establishment of a national forest system and the introduction of scientific forest management. Fernow produced many scientific reports to protect watersheds while working toward the creation of national forests. During the 1893 Chicago World's Fair, Fernow helped create forestry exhibits that generated much needed public support for the establishment of a Prussian inspired national forest system in the United States<ref>Twight, B.W. 1990. Bernhard Fernow and Prussian forestry in America. [[Journal of Forestry|J For]] 88(2):21-25</ref>. As the head of the USDA's Forestry Division, Fernow helped create the Forest Reserve Act of 1891 and the Organic Act of 1897. After his time as Chief of the USDA's Division of Forestry came to an end, Fernow became the first dean of the New York State College of Forestry at Cornell. This was the first four-year forestry school in the United States at the time. However, Fernow's time as dean of the school was not particularly fruitful. The program was shut down in 1903 by the New York State government as the program was unpopular due to its clear-cutting and the fires it caused<ref>Charles Z. Lincoln, ed. (1910) ''Messages from the Governors', vol. X, Albany, p. 555, cited in Colman, Gould P. (1963) ''Education & Agriculture, A History of the NYS College of Agriculture at Cornell University'', Cornell University Press, p.161.</ref><ref>Gove, B. 2005. Logging railroads of the Adirondacks. Syracuse University Press. pp. 176-181.</ref>. During this same time many wildfires were happening in the area due to the sparks from locomotive stacks landing on log stashes. Louis Marshall, an American constitution and civil-rights lawyer, branded locomotives as an "instrument of arson"<ref>Angus, Christopher.The extraordinary Adirondack journey of Clarence Petty: wilderness guide, pilot, and conservationist, p.17</ref>.Unfortunately, Bernhard Fernow was aware of this and continued to build this controversial railroad system that stretched 6 miles and was primarily used to transport wood. However, In 1907 Bernhard Fernow became the founding dean of the University of Toronto's Faculty of Forestry, this was Canadas first university school devoted to forest fire. To date, Fernow is known to be called the "father of professional forestry in the United States."

=Waste Places=
Fernow noticed that the bulk of American papers which recommended methods for planting forests did not account for places with poor growing conditions. These places were deemed to be "Waste Places" by Fernow. He describes these waste places as areas that will not grow grass's or any other crops<ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>. The locations of these areas were typically places with inadequate soil structure and/or had problems with water. Fernow describes waste Places as unusable because they are either stony, too wet or too dry. Wet locations do not drain well enough, and dry areas can be too sandy for agricultural use <ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>. Furthermore, Fernow believed it was important to learn how to properly "forest" these areas because the interests of agriculture will ultimately confine forests to these places<ref>Fernow 1883, 153-154</ref>. Fernow did indeed believe he had a solution for these waste places. He believed that by encouraging tree growth in these areas, they can, in time, become improved enough and will gain value and be sufficient enough to grow crops <ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>.

In One of Fernow’s writings, “Planting in Waste Places,” he describes the conditions of how the land needs to be, in order to produce the most successful yield. According to Fernow, plots of land that are too arid, for example prairie’s, don't serve much of a purpose and land that is too wet won’t produce any good crop. He then goes on to describe an instrument that was extremely helpful in the planting of millions of young pines every year. This tool is made up of two parts: the shoe, which was made of iron with one rounded and one flat side, tapering towards the end, the shape a half cone, so that when two of these shoes placed together, with the flat sides, it would create a perfect cone. The second part which is located in the center of the shoe has a threaded hole to receive the handle. The handle consists of a five-eighths inch rod, three and one/half feet long, with a squarely set wood shaft <ref>Fernow 1883 155-156</ref>. At first glance the tool resembles a carrot dangling by a rope on a piece of wood. It is used by throwing the iron cone into the ground where the plant is to stand. A hole is made by moving the cone back and forth. The plant would then be placed within the hole that was created by using this instrument.

=Yield of Wood and When to Cut It=
The purpose of this article was to answer questions of how trees grow, ways in which tree growth can be encouraged, the best time to harvest trees, and information that should be considered in context to forest control<ref>Fernow, 1882, 19</ref>. Fernow addressed the idea of the best age for cutting the wood involved a mathematical calculation along with knowledge of the forest. Some of this knowledge included knowing when wood had hit its peak and had just started to decline<ref>Fernow, 1882, 22</ref>. He also characterized wood in two ways, "log-wood", "billets" and "brush" wood<ref>Fernow, 1882, 20</ref>. Fernow also made an observation which was that beech and spruce forests do not exhaust soil nutrients even over thousands of years of occupation<ref>Fernow, 1882, 25</ref>.

According to Fernow, the weight of charcoal, if properly prepared and housed, is practically a constant factor, since most charcoal is not used fresh, but rather used after weeks when it has absorbed almost all amounts of moisture (up to 10 to 15 per cent)<ref>Bernhard, 1882, 21</ref>. Because of this Fernow believed that charcoal should be sold by weight, not by the bushel since it had a relatively consistent weight<ref>Fernow, 1882, 21</ref>.
Fernow believed that a low yield of charcoal was due to the woodcutters. This is because woodcutters had to use a specific type of wood and a specific length of stick to cut<ref>Fernow, 1882, 19</ref>.

=Notes=

=References=
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1883. “Planting in Waste Places.” The American Journal of Forestry, January, 153–55.
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1882. “The Yield of Wood and When to Cut It.” Journal of the United States Association of Charcoal Iron Workers 3 (1): 19–26.

Bernhard Fernow (1851-1923)

2020-10-08T19:26:17Z

Jakob.kidd: /* Yield of Wood and When to Cut It */

=Background=

Bernhard Fernow was born in the Prussian Province of Posen. In Prussia, Fernow spent a year in the Prussian forest service prior to studying at the University of Königsberg and the Royal Prussian Academy of Forestry at Münden(Fernow wiki). He emigrated to the Unites States in 1876 after marrying his wife Olivia Reynolds, who actively helped him in many of his later projects. Fernow worked many various jobs up until 1878. During this year, he got the opportunity to manage 15,000 acres of woods in Pennsylvania which was primarily used to obtain charcoal. In 1886, Fernow was named the third Chief of the USDA's Division of Forestry of the United States until 1898.
During his time as Chief his main policy goals were the establishment of a national forest system and the introduction of scientific forest management. Fernow produced many scientific reports to protect watersheds while working toward the creation of national forests. During the 1893 Chicago World's Fair, Fernow helped create forestry exhibits that generated much needed public support for the establishment of a Prussian inspired national forest system in the United States<ref>Twight, B.W. 1990. Bernhard Fernow and Prussian forestry in America. [[Journal of Forestry|J For]] 88(2):21-25</ref>. As the head of the USDA's Forestry Division, Fernow helped create the Forest Reserve Act of 1891 and the Organic Act of 1897. After his time as Chief of the USDA's Division of Forestry came to an end, Fernow became the first dean of the New York State College of Forestry at Cornell. This was the first four-year forestry school in the United States at the time. However, Fernow's time as dean of the school was not particularly fruitful. The program was shut down in 1903 by the New York State government as the program was unpopular due to its clear-cutting and the fires it caused<ref>Charles Z. Lincoln, ed. (1910) ''Messages from the Governors', vol. X, Albany, p. 555, cited in Colman, Gould P. (1963) ''Education & Agriculture, A History of the NYS College of Agriculture at Cornell University'', Cornell University Press, p.161.</ref><ref>Gove, B. 2005. Logging railroads of the Adirondacks. Syracuse University Press. pp. 176-181.</ref>. During this same time many wildfires were happening in the area due to the sparks from locomotive stacks landing on log stashes. Louis Marshall, an American constitution and civil-rights lawyer, branded locomotives as an "instrument of arson"<ref>Angus, Christopher.The extraordinary Adirondack journey of Clarence Petty: wilderness guide, pilot, and conservationist, p.17</ref>.Unfortunately, Bernhard Fernow was aware of this and continued to build this controversial railroad system that stretched 6 miles and was primarily used to transport wood. However, In 1907 Bernhard Fernow became the founding dean of the University of Toronto's Faculty of Forestry, this was Canadas first university school devoted to forest fire. To date, Fernow is known to be called the "father of professional forestry in the United States."

=Waste Places=
Fernow noticed that the bulk of American papers which recommended methods for planting forests did not account for places with poor growing conditions. These places were deemed to be "Waste Places" by Fernow. He describes these waste places as areas that will not grow grass's or any other crops<ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>. The locations of these areas were typically places with inadequate soil structure and/or had problems with water. Fernow describes waste Places as unusable because they are either stony, too wet or too dry. Wet locations do not drain well enough, and dry areas can be too sandy for agricultural use <ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>. Furthermore, Fernow believed it was important to learn how to properly "forest" these areas because the interests of agriculture will ultimately confine forests to these places<ref>Fernow 1883, 153-154</ref>. Fernow did indeed believe he had a solution for these waste places. He believed that by encouraging tree growth in these areas, they can, in time, become improved enough and will gain value and be sufficient enough to grow crops <ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>.

In One of Fernow’s writings, “Planting in Waste Places,” he describes the conditions of how the land needs to be, in order to produce the most successful yield. According to Fernow, plots of land that are too arid, for example prairie’s, don't serve much of a purpose and land that is too wet won’t produce any good crop. He then goes on to describe an instrument that was extremely helpful in the planting of millions of young pines every year. This tool is made up of two parts: the shoe, which was made of iron with one rounded and one flat side, tapering towards the end, the shape a half cone, so that when two of these shoes placed together, with the flat sides, it would create a perfect cone. The second part which is located in the center of the shoe has a threaded hole to receive the handle. The handle consists of a five-eighths inch rod, three and one/half feet long, with a squarely set wood shaft <ref>Fernow 1883 155-156</ref>. At first glance the tool resembles a carrot dangling by a rope on a piece of wood. It is used by throwing the iron cone into the ground where the plant is to stand. A hole is made by moving the cone back and forth. The plant would then be placed within the hole that was created by using this instrument.

=Yield of Wood and When to Cut It=
The purpose of this article was to answer questions of how trees grow, ways in which tree growth can be encouraged, the best time to harvest trees, and information that should be considered in context to forest control<ref>Fernow, 1882, 19</ref>. Fernow addressed the idea of the best age for cutting the wood involved a mathematical calculation along with knowledge of the forest. Some of this knowledge included knowing when wood had hit its peak and had just started to decline<ref>Fernow, 1882, 22</ref>. He also characterized wood in two ways, "log-wood", "billets" and "brush" wood<ref>Fernow, 1882, 20</ref>. Fernow also made an observation which was that beech and spruce forests do not exhaust soil nutrients even over thousands of years of occupation<ref>Fernow, 1882, 25</ref>.

According to Fernow, the weight of charcoal, if properly prepared and housed, is practically a constant factor, since most charcoal is not used fresh, but rather used after weeks when it has absorbed almost all amounts of moisture (up to 10 to 15 per cent)<ref>Bernhard, 1882, 21</ref>. Because of this Fernow believed that charcoal should be sold by weight, not by the bushel since it had a relatively consistent weight<ref>Fernow, 1882, 21</ref>.
Fernow believed that a low yield of charcoal was due to the woodcutters. This is because woodcutters had to use a specific type of wood and a specific length of stick to cut<ref>Fernow, 1882, 19</ref>.

=Notes=

=References=
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1883. “Planting in Waste Places.” The American Journal of Forestry, January, 153–55.
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1882. “The Yield of Wood and When to Cut It.” Journal of the United States Association of Charcoal Iron Workers 3 (1): 19–26.

Bernhard Fernow (1851-1923)

2020-10-07T21:14:21Z

Jakob.kidd: /* Yield of Wood and When to Cut It */

=Background=

Bernhard Fernow was born in the Prussian Province of Posen. In Prussia, Fernow spent a year in the Prussian forest service prior to studying at the University of Königsberg and the Royal Prussian Academy of Forestry at Münden(Fernow wiki). He emigrated to the Unites States in 1876 after marrying his wife Olivia Reynolds, who actively helped him in many of his later projects. Fernow worked many various jobs up until 1878. During this year, he got the opportunity to manage 15,000 acres of woods in Pennsylvania which was primarily used to obtain charcoal. In 1886, Fernow was named the third Chief of the USDA's Division of Forestry of the United States until 1898.
During his time as Chief his main policy goals were the establishment of a national forest system and the introduction of scientific forest management. Fernow produced many scientific reports to protect watersheds while working toward the creation of national forests. During the 1893 Chicago World's Fair, Fernow helped create forestry exhibits that generated much needed public support for the establishment of a Prussian inspired national forest system in the United States<ref>Twight, B.W. 1990. Bernhard Fernow and Prussian forestry in America. [[Journal of Forestry|J For]] 88(2):21-25</ref>. As the head of the USDA's Forestry Division, Fernow helped create the Forest Reserve Act of 1891 and the Organic Act of 1897. After his time as Chief of the USDA's Division of Forestry came to an end, Fernow became the first dean of the New York State College of Forestry at Cornell. This was the first four-year forestry school in the United States at the time. However, Fernow's time as dean of the school was not particularly fruitful. The program was shut down in 1903 by the New York State government as the program was unpopular due to its clear-cutting and the fires it caused<ref>Charles Z. Lincoln, ed. (1910) ''Messages from the Governors', vol. X, Albany, p. 555, cited in Colman, Gould P. (1963) ''Education & Agriculture, A History of the NYS College of Agriculture at Cornell University'', Cornell University Press, p.161.</ref><ref>Gove, B. 2005. Logging railroads of the Adirondacks. Syracuse University Press. pp. 176-181.</ref>. During this same time many wildfires were happening in the area due to the sparks from locomotive stacks landing on log stashes. Louis Marshall, an American constitution and civil-rights lawyer, branded locomotives as an "instrument of arson"<ref>Angus, Christopher.The extraordinary Adirondack journey of Clarence Petty: wilderness guide, pilot, and conservationist, p.17</ref>.Unfortunately, Bernhard Fernow was aware of this and continued to build this controversial railroad system that stretched 6 miles and was primarily used to transport wood. However, In 1907 Bernhard Fernow became the founding dean of the University of Toronto's Faculty of Forestry, this was Canadas first university school devoted to forest fire. To date, Fernow is known to be called the "father of professional forestry in the United States."

=Waste Places=
Fernow noticed that the bulk of American papers which recommended methods for planting forests did not account for places with poor growing conditions. These places were deemed to be "Waste Places" by Fernow. He describes these waste places as areas that will not grow grass's or any other crops<ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>. The locations of these areas were typically places with inadequate soil structure and/or had problems with water. Fernow describes waste Places as unusable because they are either stony, too wet or too dry. Wet locations do not drain well enough, and dry areas can be too sandy for agricultural use <ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>. Furthermore, Fernow believed it was important to learn how to properly "forest" these areas because the interests of agriculture will ultimately confine forests to these places<ref>Fernow 1883, 153-154</ref>. Fernow did indeed believe he had a solution for these waste places. He believed that by encouraging tree growth in these areas, they can, in time, become improved enough and will gain value and be sufficient enough to grow crops <ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>.

In One of Fernow’s writings, “Planting in Waste Places,” he describes the conditions of how the land needs to be, in order to produce the most successful yield. According to Fernow, plots of land that are too arid, for example prairie’s, don't serve much of a purpose and land that is too wet won’t produce any good crop. He then goes on to describe an instrument that was extremely helpful in the planting of millions of young pines every year. This tool is made up of two parts: the shoe, which was made of iron with one rounded and one flat side, tapering towards the end, the shape a half cone, so that when two of these shoes placed together, with the flat sides, it would create a perfect cone. The second part which is located in the center of the shoe has a threaded hole to receive the handle. The handle consists of a five-eighths inch rod, three and one/half feet long, with a squarely set wood shaft <ref>Fernow 1883 155-156</ref>. At first glance the tool resembles a carrot dangling by a rope on a piece of wood. It is used by throwing the iron cone into the ground where the plant is to stand. A hole is made by moving the cone back and forth. The plant would then be placed within the hole that was created by using this instrument.

=Yield of Wood and When to Cut It=
The purpose of this article was to answer questions of how trees grow, ways in which tree growth can be encouraged, the best time to harvest trees, and information that should be considered in context to forest control<ref>Fernow, 1882, 19</ref>. According to Fernow, the weight of charcoal, if properly prepared and housed, is practically a constant factor, since most charcoal is not used fresh, but rather used after weeks when it has absorbed almost all amounts of moisture (up to 10 to 15 per cent)<ref>Bernhard, 1882, 21</ref>. Because of this Fernow believed that charcoal should be sold by weight, not by the bushel since it had a relatively consistent weight<ref>Fernow, 1882, 21</ref>.
Fernow believed that a low yield of charcoal was due to the woodcutters. This is because woodcutters had to use a specific type of wood and a specific length of stick to cut<ref>Fernow, 1882, 19</ref>.

Fernow addressed the idea of the best age for cutting the wood involved mathematical calculation along with knowledge of the forest. This knowledge of the forest would mean knowing when wood had hit its peak and had just started to decline<ref>Fernow, 1882, 22</ref>. He also characterized wood in two ways, "log-wood", "billets" and "brush" wood<ref>Fernow, 1882, 20</ref>.

According to Fernow, beech and spruce forests do not exhaust soil nutrients even over thousands of years of occupation<ref>Fernow, 1882, 25</ref>.

=Notes=

=References=
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1883. “Planting in Waste Places.” The American Journal of Forestry, January, 153–55.
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1882. “The Yield of Wood and When to Cut It.” Journal of the United States Association of Charcoal Iron Workers 3 (1): 19–26.

Bernhard Fernow (1851-1923)

2020-10-07T21:13:54Z

Jakob.kidd: /* Waste Places */

=Background=

Bernhard Fernow was born in the Prussian Province of Posen. In Prussia, Fernow spent a year in the Prussian forest service prior to studying at the University of Königsberg and the Royal Prussian Academy of Forestry at Münden(Fernow wiki). He emigrated to the Unites States in 1876 after marrying his wife Olivia Reynolds, who actively helped him in many of his later projects. Fernow worked many various jobs up until 1878. During this year, he got the opportunity to manage 15,000 acres of woods in Pennsylvania which was primarily used to obtain charcoal. In 1886, Fernow was named the third Chief of the USDA's Division of Forestry of the United States until 1898.
During his time as Chief his main policy goals were the establishment of a national forest system and the introduction of scientific forest management. Fernow produced many scientific reports to protect watersheds while working toward the creation of national forests. During the 1893 Chicago World's Fair, Fernow helped create forestry exhibits that generated much needed public support for the establishment of a Prussian inspired national forest system in the United States<ref>Twight, B.W. 1990. Bernhard Fernow and Prussian forestry in America. [[Journal of Forestry|J For]] 88(2):21-25</ref>. As the head of the USDA's Forestry Division, Fernow helped create the Forest Reserve Act of 1891 and the Organic Act of 1897. After his time as Chief of the USDA's Division of Forestry came to an end, Fernow became the first dean of the New York State College of Forestry at Cornell. This was the first four-year forestry school in the United States at the time. However, Fernow's time as dean of the school was not particularly fruitful. The program was shut down in 1903 by the New York State government as the program was unpopular due to its clear-cutting and the fires it caused<ref>Charles Z. Lincoln, ed. (1910) ''Messages from the Governors', vol. X, Albany, p. 555, cited in Colman, Gould P. (1963) ''Education & Agriculture, A History of the NYS College of Agriculture at Cornell University'', Cornell University Press, p.161.</ref><ref>Gove, B. 2005. Logging railroads of the Adirondacks. Syracuse University Press. pp. 176-181.</ref>. During this same time many wildfires were happening in the area due to the sparks from locomotive stacks landing on log stashes. Louis Marshall, an American constitution and civil-rights lawyer, branded locomotives as an "instrument of arson"<ref>Angus, Christopher.The extraordinary Adirondack journey of Clarence Petty: wilderness guide, pilot, and conservationist, p.17</ref>.Unfortunately, Bernhard Fernow was aware of this and continued to build this controversial railroad system that stretched 6 miles and was primarily used to transport wood. However, In 1907 Bernhard Fernow became the founding dean of the University of Toronto's Faculty of Forestry, this was Canadas first university school devoted to forest fire. To date, Fernow is known to be called the "father of professional forestry in the United States."

=Waste Places=
Fernow noticed that the bulk of American papers which recommended methods for planting forests did not account for places with poor growing conditions. These places were deemed to be "Waste Places" by Fernow. He describes these waste places as areas that will not grow grass's or any other crops<ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>. The locations of these areas were typically places with inadequate soil structure and/or had problems with water. Fernow describes waste Places as unusable because they are either stony, too wet or too dry. Wet locations do not drain well enough, and dry areas can be too sandy for agricultural use <ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>. Furthermore, Fernow believed it was important to learn how to properly "forest" these areas because the interests of agriculture will ultimately confine forests to these places<ref>Fernow 1883, 153-154</ref>. Fernow did indeed believe he had a solution for these waste places. He believed that by encouraging tree growth in these areas, they can, in time, become improved enough and will gain value and be sufficient enough to grow crops <ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>.

In One of Fernow’s writings, “Planting in Waste Places,” he describes the conditions of how the land needs to be, in order to produce the most successful yield. According to Fernow, plots of land that are too arid, for example prairie’s, don't serve much of a purpose and land that is too wet won’t produce any good crop. He then goes on to describe an instrument that was extremely helpful in the planting of millions of young pines every year. This tool is made up of two parts: the shoe, which was made of iron with one rounded and one flat side, tapering towards the end, the shape a half cone, so that when two of these shoes placed together, with the flat sides, it would create a perfect cone. The second part which is located in the center of the shoe has a threaded hole to receive the handle. The handle consists of a five-eighths inch rod, three and one/half feet long, with a squarely set wood shaft <ref>Fernow 1883 155-156</ref>. At first glance the tool resembles a carrot dangling by a rope on a piece of wood. It is used by throwing the iron cone into the ground where the plant is to stand. A hole is made by moving the cone back and forth. The plant would then be placed within the hole that was created by using this instrument.

=Yield of Wood and When to Cut It=
The purpose of this article was to answer questions of how trees grow, ways in which tree growth can be encouraged, the best time to harvest trees, and information that should be considered in context to forest control<ref>Fernow, 1882, 19</ref>. According to Fernow, the weight of charcoal, if properly prepared and housed, is practically a constant factor, since most charcoal is not used fresh, but rather used after weeks when it has absorbed almost all amounts of moisture (up to 10 to 15 per cent)<ref>Bernhard, 1882, 21</ref>. Because of this Fernow believed that charcoal should be sold by weight, not by the bushel since it had a relatively consistent weight<ref>Fernow, 1882, 21</ref>.
Fernow believed that a low yield of charcoal was due to the woodcutters. This is because woodcutters had to use a specific type of wood and a specific length of stick to cut<ref>Fernow, 1882, 19</ref>.

Fernow addressed the idea of the best age for cutting the wood involved mathematical calculation along with knowledge of the forest. This knowledge of the forest would mean knowing when wood had hit its peak and had just started to decline<ref>Fernow, 1882, 22</ref>. He also characterized wood in two ways, "log-wood", "billets" and "brush" wood<ref>Fernow, 1882, 20</ref>.

Fernow noted that For the Prairie States, American papers for planting forests, presuppose that the ground to be planted is arable, or at least workable with the spade<ref>Fernow 1883, 153</ref>.

According to Fernow, beech and spruce forests do not exhaust soil nutrients even over thousands of years of occupation<ref>Fernow, 1882, 25</ref>.

=Notes=

=References=
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1883. “Planting in Waste Places.” The American Journal of Forestry, January, 153–55.
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1882. “The Yield of Wood and When to Cut It.” Journal of the United States Association of Charcoal Iron Workers 3 (1): 19–26.

Bernhard Fernow (1851-1923)

2020-10-07T21:10:22Z

Jakob.kidd: /* Yield of Wood and When to Cut It */

=Background=

Bernhard Fernow was born in the Prussian Province of Posen. In Prussia, Fernow spent a year in the Prussian forest service prior to studying at the University of Königsberg and the Royal Prussian Academy of Forestry at Münden(Fernow wiki). He emigrated to the Unites States in 1876 after marrying his wife Olivia Reynolds, who actively helped him in many of his later projects. Fernow worked many various jobs up until 1878. During this year, he got the opportunity to manage 15,000 acres of woods in Pennsylvania which was primarily used to obtain charcoal. In 1886, Fernow was named the third Chief of the USDA's Division of Forestry of the United States until 1898.
During his time as Chief his main policy goals were the establishment of a national forest system and the introduction of scientific forest management. Fernow produced many scientific reports to protect watersheds while working toward the creation of national forests. During the 1893 Chicago World's Fair, Fernow helped create forestry exhibits that generated much needed public support for the establishment of a Prussian inspired national forest system in the United States<ref>Twight, B.W. 1990. Bernhard Fernow and Prussian forestry in America. [[Journal of Forestry|J For]] 88(2):21-25</ref>. As the head of the USDA's Forestry Division, Fernow helped create the Forest Reserve Act of 1891 and the Organic Act of 1897. After his time as Chief of the USDA's Division of Forestry came to an end, Fernow became the first dean of the New York State College of Forestry at Cornell. This was the first four-year forestry school in the United States at the time. However, Fernow's time as dean of the school was not particularly fruitful. The program was shut down in 1903 by the New York State government as the program was unpopular due to its clear-cutting and the fires it caused<ref>Charles Z. Lincoln, ed. (1910) ''Messages from the Governors', vol. X, Albany, p. 555, cited in Colman, Gould P. (1963) ''Education & Agriculture, A History of the NYS College of Agriculture at Cornell University'', Cornell University Press, p.161.</ref><ref>Gove, B. 2005. Logging railroads of the Adirondacks. Syracuse University Press. pp. 176-181.</ref>. During this same time many wildfires were happening in the area due to the sparks from locomotive stacks landing on log stashes. Louis Marshall, an American constitution and civil-rights lawyer, branded locomotives as an "instrument of arson"<ref>Angus, Christopher.The extraordinary Adirondack journey of Clarence Petty: wilderness guide, pilot, and conservationist, p.17</ref>.Unfortunately, Bernhard Fernow was aware of this and continued to build this controversial railroad system that stretched 6 miles and was primarily used to transport wood. However, In 1907 Bernhard Fernow became the founding dean of the University of Toronto's Faculty of Forestry, this was Canadas first university school devoted to forest fire. To date, Fernow is known to be called the "father of professional forestry in the United States."

=Waste Places=
Fernow noticed that the bulk of American papers which recommended methods for planting forests did not account for places with poor growing conditions. These places were deemed to be "Waste Places" by Fernow. He describes these waste places as an areas that will not grow grass's or any other crops<ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>. The locations of these areas were typically places with inadequate soil structure and/or had problems with water. Fernow describes waste Places as unusable because they are either stony, too wet or too dry. Wet locations do not drain well enough, and dry areas can be too sandy for agricultural use <ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>. Furthermore, Fernow believed it was important to learn how to properly "forest" these areas because the interests of agriculture will ultimately confine forests to these places<ref>Fernow 1883, 153-154</ref>. Fernow did indeed believe he had a solution for these waste places. He believed that by encouraging tree growth in these areas, they can, in time, become improved enough and will gain value and be sufficient enough to grow crops <ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>.

In One of Fernow’s writings, “Planting in Waste Places,” he describes the conditions in which the land needs to be in, in order to produce the most successful yield. According to Fernow, plots of land that are too arid, for example prairie’s, don't serve much of a purpose and land that is too wet won’t produce any good crop. He then goes on to describe an instrument that was extremely helpful in the planting of millions of young pines every year. This tool is made up of two parts: the shoe, which was made of iron with one rounded and one flat side, tapering towards the end, the shape a half cone, so that when two of these shoes placed together, with the flat sides, it would create a perfect cone. The second part which is located in the center of the shoe has a threaded hole to receive the handle. The handle consists of a five-eighths inch rod, three and one/half feet long, with a squarely set wood shaft <ref>Fernow 1883 155-156</ref>. At first glance the tool resembles a carrot dangling by a rope on a piece of wood. It is used by throwing the iron cone into the ground where the plant is to stand. A hole is made by moving the cone back and forth. The plant would then be placed within the hole that was created by using this instrument.

=Yield of Wood and When to Cut It=
The purpose of this article was to answer questions of how trees grow, ways in which tree growth can be encouraged, the best time to harvest trees, and information that should be considered in context to forest control<ref>Fernow, 1882, 19</ref>. According to Fernow, the weight of charcoal, if properly prepared and housed, is practically a constant factor, since most charcoal is not used fresh, but rather used after weeks when it has absorbed almost all amounts of moisture (up to 10 to 15 per cent)<ref>Bernhard, 1882, 21</ref>. Because of this Fernow believed that charcoal should be sold by weight, not by the bushel since it had a relatively consistent weight<ref>Fernow, 1882, 21</ref>.
Fernow believed that a low yield of charcoal was due to the woodcutters. This is because woodcutters had to use a specific type of wood and a specific length of stick to cut<ref>Fernow, 1882, 19</ref>.

Fernow addressed the idea of the best age for cutting the wood involved mathematical calculation along with knowledge of the forest. This knowledge of the forest would mean knowing when wood had hit its peak and had just started to decline<ref>Fernow, 1882, 22</ref>. He also characterized wood in two ways, "log-wood", "billets" and "brush" wood<ref>Fernow, 1882, 20</ref>.

Fernow noted that For the Prairie States, American papers for planting forests, presuppose that the ground to be planted is arable, or at least workable with the spade<ref>Fernow 1883, 153</ref>.

According to Fernow, beech and spruce forests do not exhaust soil nutrients even over thousands of years of occupation<ref>Fernow, 1882, 25</ref>.

=Notes=

=References=
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1883. “Planting in Waste Places.” The American Journal of Forestry, January, 153–55.
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1882. “The Yield of Wood and When to Cut It.” Journal of the United States Association of Charcoal Iron Workers 3 (1): 19–26.

Bernhard Fernow (1851-1923)

2020-10-07T21:07:19Z

Jakob.kidd: /* Background */

=Background=

Bernhard Fernow was born in the Prussian Province of Posen. In Prussia, Fernow spent a year in the Prussian forest service prior to studying at the University of Königsberg and the Royal Prussian Academy of Forestry at Münden(Fernow wiki). He emigrated to the Unites States in 1876 after marrying his wife Olivia Reynolds, who actively helped him in many of his later projects. Fernow worked many various jobs up until 1878. During this year, he got the opportunity to manage 15,000 acres of woods in Pennsylvania which was primarily used to obtain charcoal. In 1886, Fernow was named the third Chief of the USDA's Division of Forestry of the United States until 1898.
During his time as Chief his main policy goals were the establishment of a national forest system and the introduction of scientific forest management. Fernow produced many scientific reports to protect watersheds while working toward the creation of national forests. During the 1893 Chicago World's Fair, Fernow helped create forestry exhibits that generated much needed public support for the establishment of a Prussian inspired national forest system in the United States<ref>Twight, B.W. 1990. Bernhard Fernow and Prussian forestry in America. [[Journal of Forestry|J For]] 88(2):21-25</ref>. As the head of the USDA's Forestry Division, Fernow helped create the Forest Reserve Act of 1891 and the Organic Act of 1897. After his time as Chief of the USDA's Division of Forestry came to an end, Fernow became the first dean of the New York State College of Forestry at Cornell. This was the first four-year forestry school in the United States at the time. However, Fernow's time as dean of the school was not particularly fruitful. The program was shut down in 1903 by the New York State government as the program was unpopular due to its clear-cutting and the fires it caused<ref>Charles Z. Lincoln, ed. (1910) ''Messages from the Governors', vol. X, Albany, p. 555, cited in Colman, Gould P. (1963) ''Education & Agriculture, A History of the NYS College of Agriculture at Cornell University'', Cornell University Press, p.161.</ref><ref>Gove, B. 2005. Logging railroads of the Adirondacks. Syracuse University Press. pp. 176-181.</ref>. During this same time many wildfires were happening in the area due to the sparks from locomotive stacks landing on log stashes. Louis Marshall, an American constitution and civil-rights lawyer, branded locomotives as an "instrument of arson"<ref>Angus, Christopher.The extraordinary Adirondack journey of Clarence Petty: wilderness guide, pilot, and conservationist, p.17</ref>.Unfortunately, Bernhard Fernow was aware of this and continued to build this controversial railroad system that stretched 6 miles and was primarily used to transport wood. However, In 1907 Bernhard Fernow became the founding dean of the University of Toronto's Faculty of Forestry, this was Canadas first university school devoted to forest fire. To date, Fernow is known to be called the "father of professional forestry in the United States."

=Waste Places=
Fernow noticed that the bulk of American papers which recommended methods for planting forests did not account for places with poor growing conditions. These places were deemed to be "Waste Places" by Fernow. He describes these waste places as an areas that will not grow grass's or any other crops<ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>. The locations of these areas were typically places with inadequate soil structure and/or had problems with water. Fernow describes waste Places as unusable because they are either stony, too wet or too dry. Wet locations do not drain well enough, and dry areas can be too sandy for agricultural use <ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>. Furthermore, Fernow believed it was important to learn how to properly "forest" these areas because the interests of agriculture will ultimately confine forests to these places<ref>Fernow 1883, 153-154</ref>. Fernow did indeed believe he had a solution for these waste places. He believed that by encouraging tree growth in these areas, they can, in time, become improved enough and will gain value and be sufficient enough to grow crops <ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>.

In One of Fernow’s writings, “Planting in Waste Places,” he describes the conditions in which the land needs to be in, in order to produce the most successful yield. According to Fernow, plots of land that are too arid, for example prairie’s, don't serve much of a purpose and land that is too wet won’t produce any good crop. He then goes on to describe an instrument that was extremely helpful in the planting of millions of young pines every year. This tool is made up of two parts: the shoe, which was made of iron with one rounded and one flat side, tapering towards the end, the shape a half cone, so that when two of these shoes placed together, with the flat sides, it would create a perfect cone. The second part which is located in the center of the shoe has a threaded hole to receive the handle. The handle consists of a five-eighths inch rod, three and one/half feet long, with a squarely set wood shaft <ref>Fernow 1883 155-156</ref>. At first glance the tool resembles a carrot dangling by a rope on a piece of wood. It is used by throwing the iron cone into the ground where the plant is to stand. A hole is made by moving the cone back and forth. The plant would then be placed within the hole that was created by using this instrument.

=Yield of Wood and When to Cut It=
The purpose of this article was to answer questions of how trees grow, ways in which tree growth can be encouraged, the best time to harvest trees, and information that should be considered in context to forest control<ref>Fernow, 1882, 19</ref>. According to Fernow, the weight of charcoal, if properly prepared and housed, is practically a constant factor, since most charcoal is not used fresh, but rather used after weeks when it has absorbed almost all amounts of moisture (up to 10 to 15 per cent)<ref>Bernhard, 1882, 21</ref>. Because of this Fernow believed that charcoal should be sold by weight, not by the bushel since it had a relatively consistent weight<ref>Fernow, 1882, 21</ref>.
Fernow believed that a low yield of charcoal was due to the woodcutters. This is because woodcutters had to use a specific type of wood and a specific length of stick to cut<ref>Fernow, 1882, 19</ref>.

Fernow characterized wood as "log-wood", "billets" and "brush" wood<ref>Fernow, 1882, 20</ref>.

Fernow addressed the idea of the best age for cutting the wood involved mathematical calculation along with knowledge of the forest. This knowledge of the forest would mean knowing when wood had hit its peak and had just started to decline<ref>Fernow, 1882, 22</ref>.
Fernow noted that For the Prairie States, American papers for planting forests, presuppose that the ground to be planted is arable, or at least workable with the spade<ref>Fernow 1883, 153</ref>.

According to Fernow, beech and spruce forests do not exhaust soil nutrients even over thousands of years of occupation<ref>Fernow, 1882, 25</ref>.

=Notes=

=References=
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1883. “Planting in Waste Places.” The American Journal of Forestry, January, 153–55.
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1882. “The Yield of Wood and When to Cut It.” Journal of the United States Association of Charcoal Iron Workers 3 (1): 19–26.

Bernhard Fernow (1851-1923)

2020-10-07T21:06:19Z

Jakob.kidd: /* Waste Places */

=Background=

Bernhard Fernow was born in the Prussian Province of Posen. In Prussia, Fernow spent a year in the Prussian forest service prior to studying at the University of Königsberg and the Royal Prussian Academy of Forestry at Münden(Fernow wiki). He emigrated to the Unites States in 1876 after marrying his wife Olivia Reynolds, who actively helped him in many of his later projects. Fernow worked many various jobs up until 1878. During this year, he got the opportunity to manage 15,000 acres of woods in Pennsylvania which was primarily used to obtain charcoal. In 1886, Fernow was named the third Chief of the USDA's Division of Forestry of the United States until 1898.
During his time as Chief his main policy goals were the establishment of a national forest system and the introduction of scientific forest management. Fernow produced many scientific reports to protect watersheds while working toward the creation of national forests. During the 1893 Chicago World's Fair, Fernow helped create forestry exhibits that generated much needed public support for the establishment of a Prussian inspired national forest system in the United States<ref>Twight, B.W. 1990. Bernhard Fernow and Prussian forestry in America. [[Journal of Forestry|J For]] 88(2):21-25</ref>. As the head of the USDA's Forestry Division, Fernow helped create the Forest Reserve Act of 1891 and the Organic Act of 1897. After his time as Chief of the USDA's Division of Forestry came to an end, Fernow became the first dean of the New York State College of Forestry at Cornell. This was the first four-year forestry school in the United States at the time. However, Fernow's time as dean of the school was not particularly fruitful. The program was shut down in 1903 by the New York State government as the program was unpopular due to its clear-cutting and the fires it caused<ref>Charles Z. Lincoln, ed. (1910) ''Messages from the Governors', vol. X, Albany, p. 555, cited in Colman, Gould P. (1963) ''Education & Agriculture, A History of the NYS College of Agriculture at Cornell University'', Cornell University Press, p.161.</ref><ref>Gove, B. 2005. Logging railroads of the Adirondacks. Syracuse University Press. pp. 176-181.</ref>. During this same time many wildfires were happening in the area due to the sparks from locomotive stacks landing on log stashes. Louis Marshall, an American constitution and civil-rights lawyer, branded locomotives as an "instrument of arson"<ref>Angus, Christopher.The extraordinary Adirondack journey of Clarence Petty: wilderness guide, pilot, and conservationist, p.17</ref>.Unfortunately, Bernhard Fernow was aware of this and continued to build a controversial railroad system that stretched 6 miles and was primarily used to transport wood. However, In 1907 Bernhard Fernow became the founding dean of the University of Toronto's Faculty of Forestry, this was Canadas first university school devoted to forest fire. To date, Fernow is known to be called the "father of professional forestry in the United States."

=Waste Places=
Fernow noticed that the bulk of American papers which recommended methods for planting forests did not account for places with poor growing conditions. These places were deemed to be "Waste Places" by Fernow. He describes these waste places as an areas that will not grow grass's or any other crops<ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>. The locations of these areas were typically places with inadequate soil structure and/or had problems with water. Fernow describes waste Places as unusable because they are either stony, too wet or too dry. Wet locations do not drain well enough, and dry areas can be too sandy for agricultural use <ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>. Furthermore, Fernow believed it was important to learn how to properly "forest" these areas because the interests of agriculture will ultimately confine forests to these places<ref>Fernow 1883, 153-154</ref>. Fernow did indeed believe he had a solution for these waste places. He believed that by encouraging tree growth in these areas, they can, in time, become improved enough and will gain value and be sufficient enough to grow crops <ref>Fernow 1883 ,153</ref>.

In One of Fernow’s writings, “Planting in Waste Places,” he describes the conditions in which the land needs to be in, in order to produce the most successful yield. According to Fernow, plots of land that are too arid, for example prairie’s, don't serve much of a purpose and land that is too wet won’t produce any good crop. He then goes on to describe an instrument that was extremely helpful in the planting of millions of young pines every year. This tool is made up of two parts: the shoe, which was made of iron with one rounded and one flat side, tapering towards the end, the shape a half cone, so that when two of these shoes placed together, with the flat sides, it would create a perfect cone. The second part which is located in the center of the shoe has a threaded hole to receive the handle. The handle consists of a five-eighths inch rod, three and one/half feet long, with a squarely set wood shaft <ref>Fernow 1883 155-156</ref>. At first glance the tool resembles a carrot dangling by a rope on a piece of wood. It is used by throwing the iron cone into the ground where the plant is to stand. A hole is made by moving the cone back and forth. The plant would then be placed within the hole that was created by using this instrument.

=Yield of Wood and When to Cut It=
The purpose of this article was to answer questions of how trees grow, ways in which tree growth can be encouraged, the best time to harvest trees, and information that should be considered in context to forest control<ref>Fernow, 1882, 19</ref>. According to Fernow, the weight of charcoal, if properly prepared and housed, is practically a constant factor, since most charcoal is not used fresh, but rather used after weeks when it has absorbed almost all amounts of moisture (up to 10 to 15 per cent)<ref>Bernhard, 1882, 21</ref>. Because of this Fernow believed that charcoal should be sold by weight, not by the bushel since it had a relatively consistent weight<ref>Fernow, 1882, 21</ref>.
Fernow believed that a low yield of charcoal was due to the woodcutters. This is because woodcutters had to use a specific type of wood and a specific length of stick to cut<ref>Fernow, 1882, 19</ref>.

Fernow characterized wood as "log-wood", "billets" and "brush" wood<ref>Fernow, 1882, 20</ref>.

Fernow addressed the idea of the best age for cutting the wood involved mathematical calculation along with knowledge of the forest. This knowledge of the forest would mean knowing when wood had hit its peak and had just started to decline<ref>Fernow, 1882, 22</ref>.
Fernow noted that For the Prairie States, American papers for planting forests, presuppose that the ground to be planted is arable, or at least workable with the spade<ref>Fernow 1883, 153</ref>.

According to Fernow, beech and spruce forests do not exhaust soil nutrients even over thousands of years of occupation<ref>Fernow, 1882, 25</ref>.

=Notes=

=References=
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1883. “Planting in Waste Places.” The American Journal of Forestry, January, 153–55.
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1882. “The Yield of Wood and When to Cut It.” Journal of the United States Association of Charcoal Iron Workers 3 (1): 19–26.

Bernhard Fernow (1851-1923)

2020-10-07T21:00:47Z

Jakob.kidd: /* Waste Places */

=Background=

Bernhard Fernow was born in the Prussian Province of Posen. In Prussia, Fernow spent a year in the Prussian forest service prior to studying at the University of Königsberg and the Royal Prussian Academy of Forestry at Münden(Fernow wiki). He emigrated to the Unites States in 1876 after marrying his wife Olivia Reynolds, who actively helped him in many of his later projects. Fernow worked many various jobs up until 1878. During this year, he got the opportunity to manage 15,000 acres of woods in Pennsylvania which was primarily used to obtain charcoal. In 1886, Fernow was named the third Chief of the USDA's Division of Forestry of the United States until 1898.
During his time as Chief his main policy goals were the establishment of a national forest system and the introduction of scientific forest management. Fernow produced many scientific reports to protect watersheds while working toward the creation of national forests. During the 1893 Chicago World's Fair, Fernow helped create forestry exhibits that generated much needed public support for the establishment of a Prussian inspired national forest system in the United States<ref>Twight, B.W. 1990. Bernhard Fernow and Prussian forestry in America. [[Journal of Forestry|J For]] 88(2):21-25</ref>. As the head of the USDA's Forestry Division, Fernow helped create the Forest Reserve Act of 1891 and the Organic Act of 1897. After his time as Chief of the USDA's Division of Forestry came to an end, Fernow became the first dean of the New York State College of Forestry at Cornell. This was the first four-year forestry school in the United States at the time. However, Fernow's time as dean of the school was not particularly fruitful. The program was shut down in 1903 by the New York State government as the program was unpopular due to its clear-cutting and the fires it caused<ref>Charles Z. Lincoln, ed. (1910) ''Messages from the Governors', vol. X, Albany, p. 555, cited in Colman, Gould P. (1963) ''Education & Agriculture, A History of the NYS College of Agriculture at Cornell University'', Cornell University Press, p.161.</ref><ref>Gove, B. 2005. Logging railroads of the Adirondacks. Syracuse University Press. pp. 176-181.</ref>. During this same time many wildfires were happening in the area due to the sparks from locomotive stacks landing on log stashes. Louis Marshall, an American constitution and civil-rights lawyer, branded locomotives as an "instrument of arson"<ref>Angus, Christopher.The extraordinary Adirondack journey of Clarence Petty: wilderness guide, pilot, and conservationist, p.17</ref>.Unfortunately, Bernhard Fernow was aware of this and continued to build a controversial railroad system that stretched 6 miles and was primarily used to transport wood. However, In 1907 Bernhard Fernow became the founding dean of the University of Toronto's Faculty of Forestry, this was Canadas first university school devoted to forest fire. To date, Fernow is known to be called the "father of professional forestry in the United States."

=Waste Places=
Fernow noticed that the bulk of American papers which recommended methods for planting forests did not account for places with poor growing conditions. These places were deemed to be "Waste Places" by Fernow. He describes these waste places as an areas that will not grow grass's or any other crops(Hough 153). The locations of these areas were typically places with inadequate soil structure and/or had problems with water. Fernow describes waste Places as unusable because they are either stony, too wet or too dry. Wet locations do not drain well enough, and dry areas can be too sandy for agricultural use (Hough 153). Furthermore, Fernow believed it was important to learn how to properly "forest" these areas because the interests of agriculture will ultimately confine forests to these places<ref>Fernow 1883, 153-154</ref>. Fernow did indeed believe he had a solution for these waste places. He believed that by encouraging tree growth in these areas, they can, in time, become improved enough and will gain value and be sufficient enough to grow crops. (Hough 153)

In One of Fernow’s writings, “Planting in Waste Places,” he describes the conditions in which the land needs to be in, in order to produce the most successful yield. According to Fernow, plots of land that are too arid, for example prairie’s, don't serve much of a purpose and land that is too wet won’t produce any good crop. He then goes on to describe an instrument that was extremely helpful in the planting of millions of young pines every year. This tool is made up of two parts: the shoe, which was made of iron with one rounded and one flat side, tapering towards the end, the shape a half cone, so that when two of these shoes placed together, with the flat sides, it would create a perfect cone. The second part which is located in the center of the shoe has a threaded hole to receive the handle. The handle consists of a five-eighths inch rod, three and one/half feet long, with a squarely set wood shaft <ref>Fernow 1883 155-156</ref>. At first glance the tool resembles a carrot dangling by a rope on a piece of wood. It is used by throwing the iron cone into the ground where the plant is to stand. A hole is made by moving the cone back and forth. The plant would then be placed within the hole that was created by using this instrument.

=Yield of Wood and When to Cut It=
The purpose of this article was to answer questions of how trees grow, ways in which tree growth can be encouraged, the best time to harvest trees, and information that should be considered in context to forest control<ref>Fernow, 1882, 19</ref>. According to Fernow, the weight of charcoal, if properly prepared and housed, is practically a constant factor, since most charcoal is not used fresh, but rather used after weeks when it has absorbed almost all amounts of moisture (up to 10 to 15 per cent)<ref>Bernhard, 1882, 21</ref>. Because of this Fernow believed that charcoal should be sold by weight, not by the bushel since it had a relatively consistent weight<ref>Fernow, 1882, 21</ref>.
Fernow believed that a low yield of charcoal was due to the woodcutters. This is because woodcutters had to use a specific type of wood and a specific length of stick to cut<ref>Fernow, 1882, 19</ref>.

Fernow characterized wood as "log-wood", "billets" and "brush" wood<ref>Fernow, 1882, 20</ref>.

Fernow addressed the idea of the best age for cutting the wood involved mathematical calculation along with knowledge of the forest. This knowledge of the forest would mean knowing when wood had hit its peak and had just started to decline<ref>Fernow, 1882, 22</ref>.
Fernow noted that For the Prairie States, American papers for planting forests, presuppose that the ground to be planted is arable, or at least workable with the spade<ref>Fernow 1883, 153</ref>.

According to Fernow, beech and spruce forests do not exhaust soil nutrients even over thousands of years of occupation<ref>Fernow, 1882, 25</ref>.

=Notes=

=References=
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1883. “Planting in Waste Places.” The American Journal of Forestry, January, 153–55.
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1882. “The Yield of Wood and When to Cut It.” Journal of the United States Association of Charcoal Iron Workers 3 (1): 19–26.

Bernhard Fernow (1851-1923)

2020-10-07T20:43:59Z

Jakob.kidd: /* Yield of Wood and When to Cut It */

=Background=

Bernhard Fernow was born in the Prussian Province of Posen. In Prussia, Fernow spent a year in the Prussian forest service prior to studying at the University of Königsberg and the Royal Prussian Academy of Forestry at Münden(Fernow wiki). He emigrated to the Unites States in 1876 after marrying his wife Olivia Reynolds, who actively helped him in many of his later projects. Fernow worked many various jobs up until 1878. During this year, he got the opportunity to manage 15,000 acres of woods in Pennsylvania which was primarily used to obtain charcoal. In 1886, Fernow was named the third Chief of the USDA's Division of Forestry of the United States until 1898.
During his time as Chief his main policy goals were the establishment of a national forest system and the introduction of scientific forest management. Fernow produced many scientific reports to protect watersheds while working toward the creation of national forests. During the 1893 Chicago World's Fair, Fernow helped create forestry exhibits that generated much needed public support for the establishment of a Prussian inspired national forest system in the United States<ref>Twight, B.W. 1990. Bernhard Fernow and Prussian forestry in America. [[Journal of Forestry|J For]] 88(2):21-25</ref>. As the head of the USDA's Forestry Division, Fernow helped create the Forest Reserve Act of 1891 and the Organic Act of 1897. After his time as Chief of the USDA's Division of Forestry came to an end, Fernow became the first dean of the New York State College of Forestry at Cornell. This was the first four-year forestry school in the United States at the time. However, Fernow's time as dean of the school was not particularly fruitful. The program was shut down in 1903 by the New York State government as the program was unpopular due to its clear-cutting and the fires it caused<ref>Charles Z. Lincoln, ed. (1910) ''Messages from the Governors', vol. X, Albany, p. 555, cited in Colman, Gould P. (1963) ''Education & Agriculture, A History of the NYS College of Agriculture at Cornell University'', Cornell University Press, p.161.</ref><ref>Gove, B. 2005. Logging railroads of the Adirondacks. Syracuse University Press. pp. 176-181.</ref>. During this same time many wildfires were happening in the area due to the sparks from locomotive stacks landing on log stashes. Louis Marshall, an American constitution and civil-rights lawyer, branded locomotives as an "instrument of arson"<ref>Angus, Christopher.The extraordinary Adirondack journey of Clarence Petty: wilderness guide, pilot, and conservationist, p.17</ref>.Unfortunately, Bernhard Fernow was aware of this and continued to build a controversial railroad system that stretched 6 miles and was primarily used to transport wood. However, In 1907 Bernhard Fernow became the founding dean of the University of Toronto's Faculty of Forestry, this was Canadas first university school devoted to forest fire. To date, Fernow is known to be called the "father of professional forestry in the United States."

=Waste Places=
Fernow noticed that the bulk of American papers which recommended methods for planting forests did not account for places with poor growing conditions. These places were deemed to be "Waste Places" by Fernow. These locations typically were places with inadequate soil structure and/or had problems with water. Fernow believed it was important to learn how to properly "forest" these areas because the interests of agriculture will ultimately confine forests to these places<ref>Fernow 1883, 153-154</ref>.

In One of Fernow’s writings, “Planting in Waste Places,” he describes the conditions in which land needs to be in, in order to produce the most successful yield. According to Fernow, plots of land that are too arid, for example prairie’s, don't serve much and land that is too wet won’t produce any good crop. He then goes on to describe an instrument that was extremely helpful in planting millions of young pines every year. This tool is made up of two parts: the shoe, which was made of iron with one rounded and one flat side, tapering towards the end, in shape like a half cone, so that two of these shoes placed together, with the flat sides, would represent a perfect cone. The second part which is located in the center of the shoe has a threaded hole to receive the handle. The handle consists of a five-eighths inch rod, three and one/half feet long, with a squarely set wood shaft <ref>Fernow 1883 155-156</ref>. At first glance the tool resembles a carrot dangling by a rope on a piece of wood. It is used by throwing the iron cone into the ground where the plant is to stand. A hole is made by moving the cone back and forth. The plant would then be placed within the hole that was created by using this instrument.

According to Bernhard Fernow, a waste place is an area that will not grow grass or any other crop. (Hough 153).

Fernow describes waste Places are unusable because they are either stony, too wet or too dry. Wet locations do not drain well enough, and dry areas can be too sandy for agricultural use. (Hough 153)

It is Fernow's belief that by encouraging tree growth in these areas, they can, in time, become improved enough and will gain value and be able to grow crops. (Hough 153)

=Yield of Wood and When to Cut It=
The purpose of this article was to answer questions of how trees grow, ways in which tree growth can be encouraged, the best time to harvest trees, and information that should be considered in context to forest control<ref>Fernow, 1882, 19</ref>. According to Fernow, the weight of charcoal, if properly prepared and housed, is practically a constant factor, since most charcoal is not used fresh, but rather used after weeks when it has absorbed almost all amounts of moisture (up to 10 to 15 per cent)<ref>Bernhard, 1882, 21</ref>. Because of this Fernow believed that charcoal should be sold by weight, not by the bushel since it had a relatively consistent weight<ref>Fernow, 1882, 21</ref>.
Fernow believed that a low yield of charcoal was due to the woodcutters. This is because woodcutters had to use a specific type of wood and a specific length of stick to cut<ref>Fernow, 1882, 19</ref>.

Fernow characterized wood as "log-wood", "billets" and "brush" wood<ref>Fernow, 1882, 20</ref>.

Fernow addressed the idea of the best age for cutting the wood involved mathematical calculation along with knowledge of the forest. This knowledge of the forest would mean knowing when wood had hit its peak and had just started to decline<ref>Fernow, 1882, 22</ref>.
Fernow noted that For the Prairie States, American papers for planting forests, presuppose that the ground to be planted is arable, or at least workable with the spade<ref>Fernow 1883, 153</ref>.

According to Fernow, beech and spruce forests do not exhaust soil nutrients even over thousands of years of occupation<ref>Fernow, 1882, 25</ref>.

=Notes=

=References=
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1883. “Planting in Waste Places.” The American Journal of Forestry, January, 153–55.
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1882. “The Yield of Wood and When to Cut It.” Journal of the United States Association of Charcoal Iron Workers 3 (1): 19–26.

Bernhard Fernow (1851-1923)

2020-10-07T13:38:53Z

Jakob.kidd:

=Background=

Bernhard Fernow was born in the Prussian Province of Posen. In Prussia, Fernow spent a year in the Prussian forest service prior to studying at the University of Königsberg and the Royal Prussian Academy of Forestry at Münden(Fernow wiki). He emigrated to the Unites States in 1876 after marrying his wife Olivia Reynolds, who actively helped him in many of his later projects. Fernow worked many various jobs up until 1878. During this year, he got the opportunity to manage 15,000 acres of woods in Pennsylvania which was primarily used to obtain charcoal. In 1886, Fernow was named the third Chief of the USDA's Division of Forestry of the United States until 1898.
During his time as Chief his main policy goals were the establishment of a national forest system and the introduction of scientific forest management. Fernow produced many scientific reports to protect watersheds while working toward the creation of national forests. During the 1893 Chicago World's Fair, Fernow helped create forestry exhibits that generated much needed public support for the establishment of a Prussian inspired national forest system in the United States<ref>Twight, B.W. 1990. Bernhard Fernow and Prussian forestry in America. [[Journal of Forestry|J For]] 88(2):21-25</ref>. As the head of the USDA's Forestry Division, Fernow helped create the Forest Reserve Act of 1891 and the Organic Act of 1897. After his time as Chief of the USDA's Division of Forestry came to an end, Fernow became the first dean of the New York State College of Forestry at Cornell. This was the first four-year forestry school in the United States at the time. However, Fernow's time as dean of the school was not particularly fruitful. The program was shut down in 1903 by the New York State government as the program was unpopular due to its clear-cutting and the fires it caused<ref>Charles Z. Lincoln, ed. (1910) ''Messages from the Governors', vol. X, Albany, p. 555, cited in Colman, Gould P. (1963) ''Education & Agriculture, A History of the NYS College of Agriculture at Cornell University'', Cornell University Press, p.161.</ref><ref>Gove, B. 2005. Logging railroads of the Adirondacks. Syracuse University Press. pp. 176-181.</ref>. During this same time many wildfires were happening in the area due to the sparks from locomotive stacks landing on log stashes. Louis Marshall, an American constitution and civil-rights lawyer, branded locomotives as an "instrument of arson"<ref>Angus, Christopher.The extraordinary Adirondack journey of Clarence Petty: wilderness guide, pilot, and conservationist, p.17</ref>.Unfortunately, Bernhard Fernow was aware of this and continued to build a controversial railroad system that stretched 6 miles and was primarily used to transport wood. However, In 1907 Bernhard Fernow became the founding dean of the University of Toronto's Faculty of Forestry, this was Canadas first university school devoted to forest fire. To date, Fernow is known to be called the "father of professional forestry in the United States."

=Waste Places=
Fernow noticed that the bulk of American papers which recommended methods for planting forests did not account for places with poor growing conditions. These places were deemed to be "Waste Places" by Fernow. These locations typically were places with inadequate soil structure and/or had problems with water. Fernow believed it was important to learn how to properly "forest" these areas because the interests of agriculture will ultimately confine forests to these places<ref>Fernow 1883, 153-154</ref>.

In One of Fernow’s writings, “Planting in Waste Places,” he describes the conditions in which land needs to be in, in order to produce the most successful yield. According to Fernow, plots of land that are too arid, for example prairie’s, don't serve much and land that is too wet won’t produce any good crop. He then goes on to describe an instrument that was extremely helpful in planting millions of young pines every year. This tool is made up of two parts: the shoe, which was made of iron with one rounded and one flat side, tapering towards the end, in shape like a half cone, so that two of these shoes placed together, with the flat sides, would represent a perfect cone. The second part which is located in the center of the shoe has a threaded hole to receive the handle. The handle consists of a five-eighths inch rod, three and one/half feet long, with a squarely set wood shaft <ref>Fernow 1883 155-156</ref>. At first glance the tool resembles a carrot dangling by a rope on a piece of wood. It is used by throwing the iron cone into the ground where the plant is to stand. A hole is made by moving the cone back and forth. The plant would then be placed within the hole that was created by using this instrument.

According to Bernhard Fernow, a waste place is an area that will not grow grass or any other crop. (Hough 153).

Fernow describes waste Places are unusable because they are either stony, too wet or too dry. Wet locations do not drain well enough, and dry areas can be too sandy for agricultural use. (Hough 153)

It is Fernow's belief that by encouraging tree growth in these areas, they can, in time, become improved enough and will gain value and be able to grow crops. (Hough 153)

=Yield of Wood and When to Cut It=
The purpose of this article was to answer questions of how trees grow, ways in which tree growth can be encouraged, the best time to harvest trees, and information that should be considered in context to forest control<ref>Fernow, 1882, 19</ref>. According to Fernow, the weight of charcoal, if properly prepared and housed, is practically a constant factor, since most charcoal is not used fresh, but rather used after weeks when it has absorbed almost all amounts of moisture (up to 10 to 15 per cent)<ref>Bernhard, 1882, 21</ref>.
Fernow believed that a low yield of charcoal was due to the woodcutters. This is because woodcutters had to use a specific type of wood and a specific length of stick to cut<ref>Fernow, 1882, 19</ref>.

Fernow characterized wood as "log-wood", "billets" and "brush" wood<ref>Fernow, 1882, 20</ref>.

Fernow also believed that charcoal should be sold by weight, not by the bushel since it had a relatively consistent weight<ref>Fernow, 1882, 21</ref>.

Fernow addressed the idea of the best age for cutting the wood involved mathematical calculation along with knowledge of the forest. This knowledge of the forest would mean knowing when wood had hit its peak and had just started to decline<ref>Fernow, 1882, 22</ref>.
Fernow noted that For the Prairie States, American papers for planting forests, presuppose that the ground to be planted is arable, or at least workable with the spade<ref>Fernow 1883, 153</ref>.

According to Fernow, beech and spruce forests do not exhaust soil nutrients even over thousands of years of occupation<ref>Fernow, 1882, 25</ref>.

=Notes=

=References=
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1883. “Planting in Waste Places.” The American Journal of Forestry, January, 153–55.
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1882. “The Yield of Wood and When to Cut It.” Journal of the United States Association of Charcoal Iron Workers 3 (1): 19–26.

Bernhard Fernow (1851-1923)

2020-10-07T13:23:35Z

Jakob.kidd: /* Yield of Wood and When to Cut It */

=Background=

Bernhard Fernow was born in the Prussian Province of Posen. In Prussia, Fernow spent a year in the Prussian forest service prior to studying at the University of Königsberg and the Royal Prussian Academy of Forestry at Münden(Fernow wiki). He emigrated to the Unites States in 1876 after marrying his wife Olivia Reynolds, who actively helped him in many of his later projects. Fernow worked many various jobs up until 1878. During this year, he got the opportunity to manage 15,000 acres of woods in Pennsylvania which was primarily used to obtain charcoal. In 1886, Fernow was named the third Chief of the USDA's Division of Forestry of the United States until 1898.
During his time as Chief his main policy goals were the establishment of a national forest system and the introduction of scientific forest management. Fernow produced many scientific reports to protect watersheds while working toward the creation of national forests. During the 1893 Chicago World's Fair, Fernow helped create forestry exhibits that generated much needed public support for the establishment of a Prussian inspired national forest system in the United States<ref>Twight, B.W. 1990. Bernhard Fernow and Prussian forestry in America. [[Journal of Forestry|J For]] 88(2):21-25</ref>. As the head of the USDA's Forestry Division, Fernow helped create the Forest Reserve Act of 1891 and the Organic Act of 1897. After his time as Chief of the USDA's Division of Forestry came to an end, Fernow became the first dean of the New York State College of Forestry at Cornell. This was the first four-year forestry school in the United States at the time. However, Fernow's time as dean of the school was not particularly fruitful. The program was shut down in 1903 by the New York State government as the program was unpopular due to its clear-cutting and the fires it caused<ref>Charles Z. Lincoln, ed. (1910) ''Messages from the Governors', vol. X, Albany, p. 555, cited in Colman, Gould P. (1963) ''Education & Agriculture, A History of the NYS College of Agriculture at Cornell University'', Cornell University Press, p.161.</ref><ref>Gove, B. 2005. Logging railroads of the Adirondacks. Syracuse University Press. pp. 176-181.</ref>. During this same time many wildfires were happening in the area due to the sparks from locomotive stacks landing on log stashes. Louis Marshall, an American constitution and civil-rights lawyer, branded locomotives as an "instrument of arson"<ref>Angus, Christopher.The extraordinary Adirondack journey of Clarence Petty: wilderness guide, pilot, and conservationist, p.17</ref>.Unfortunately, Bernhard Fernow was aware of this and continued to build a controversial railroad system that stretched 6 miles and was primarily used to transport wood. However, In 1907 Bernhard Fernow became the founding dean of the University of Toronto's Faculty of Forestry, this was Canadas first university school devoted to forest fire. To date, Fernow is known to be called the "father of professional forestry in the United States."

=Waste Places=
Fernow noticed that the bulk of American papers which recommended methods for planting forests did not account for places with poor growing conditions. These places were deemed to be "Waste Places" by Fernow. These locations typically were places with inadequate soil structure and/or had problems with water. Fernow believed it was important to learn how to properly "forest" these areas because the interests of agriculture will ultimately confine forests to these places<ref>Fernow 1883, 153-154</ref>.

In One of Fernow’s writings, “Planting in Waste Places,” he describes the conditions in which land needs to be in, in order to produce the most successful yield. According to Fernow, plots of land that are too arid, for example prairie’s, don't serve much and land that is too wet won’t produce any good crop. He then goes on to describe an instrument that was extremely helpful in planting millions of young pines every year. This tool is made up of two parts: the shoe, which was made of iron with one rounded and one flat side, tapering towards the end, in shape like a half cone, so that two of these shoes placed together, with the flat sides, would represent a perfect cone. The second part which is located in the center of the shoe has a threaded hole to receive the handle. The handle consists of a five-eighths inch rod, three and one/half feet long, with a squarely set wood shaft <ref>Fernow 1883 155-156</ref>. At first glance the tool resembles a carrot dangling by a rope on a piece of wood. It is used by throwing the iron cone into the ground where the plant is to stand. A hole is made by moving the cone back and forth. The plant would then be placed within the hole that was created by using this instrument.

According to Bernhard Fernow, a waste place is an area that will not grow grass or any other crop. (Hough 153).

Fernow describes waste Places are unusable because they are either stony, too wet or too dry. Wet locations do not drain well enough, and dry areas can be too sandy for agricultural use. (Hough 153)

It is Fernow's belief that by encouraging tree growth in these areas, they can, in time, become improved enough and will gain value and be able to grow crops. (Hough 153)

=Yield of Wood and When to Cut It=
The purpose of this article was to answer questions of how trees grow, ways in which can encourage tree growth, the best time to harvest trees, and information that should be considered in context to forest control. (Fernow, Charcoal Iron Workers, p. 19) According to Fernow, the weight of charcoal, if properly prepared and housed, is practically a constant factor, since most charcoal is not used fresh, but rather used after weeks when it has absorbed almost all amounts of moisture (up to 10 to 15 per cent)<ref>Bernhard, 1882, 21</ref>.
Fernow believed that low yield of charcoal were due to how the woodcutters used specific types of wood and the length of the sticks they cut. (Fernow, Charcoal Iron Workers, p. 19)

Fernow characterized wood as "log-wood", "billets" and "brush" wood. (Fernow, Charcoal Iron Workers, p. 20)

Fernow believed that charcoal should be sold by weight, not by the bushel since it had a relatively consistent weight. <ref>Fernow, 1882 Charcoal Iron Workers, 21

Fernow addressed the idea of the best age for cutting the wood involved mathematical calculation along with knowledge of the forest. This knowledge of the forest would mean knowing when wood had hit its peak and had just started to decline (Fernow, Charcoal Iron Workers, p. 22) .
Fernow noted that For the Prairie States, American papers for planting forests, presuppose that the ground to be planted is arable, or at least workable with the spade<ref>Fernow 1883, 153</ref>

According to Fernow, beech and spruce forests do not exhaust soil nutrients even over thousands of years of occupation. (Fernow, Charcoal Iron Workers, p. 25)

=Notes=

=References=
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1883. “Planting in Waste Places.” The American Journal of Forestry, January, 153–55.
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1882. “The Yield of Wood and When to Cut It.” Journal of the United States Association of Charcoal Iron Workers 3 (1): 19–26.

Bernhard Fernow (1851-1923)

2020-10-07T13:17:41Z

Jakob.kidd: /* Waste Places */

=Background=

Bernhard Fernow was born in the Prussian Province of Posen. In Prussia, Fernow spent a year in the Prussian forest service prior to studying at the University of Königsberg and the Royal Prussian Academy of Forestry at Münden(Fernow wiki). He emigrated to the Unites States in 1876 after marrying his wife Olivia Reynolds, who actively helped him in many of his later projects. Fernow worked many various jobs up until 1878. During this year, he got the opportunity to manage 15,000 acres of woods in Pennsylvania which was primarily used to obtain charcoal. In 1886, Fernow was named the third Chief of the USDA's Division of Forestry of the United States until 1898.
During his time as Chief his main policy goals were the establishment of a national forest system and the introduction of scientific forest management. Fernow produced many scientific reports to protect watersheds while working toward the creation of national forests. During the 1893 Chicago World's Fair, Fernow helped create forestry exhibits that generated much needed public support for the establishment of a Prussian inspired national forest system in the United States<ref>Twight, B.W. 1990. Bernhard Fernow and Prussian forestry in America. [[Journal of Forestry|J For]] 88(2):21-25</ref>. As the head of the USDA's Forestry Division, Fernow helped create the Forest Reserve Act of 1891 and the Organic Act of 1897. After his time as Chief of the USDA's Division of Forestry came to an end, Fernow became the first dean of the New York State College of Forestry at Cornell. This was the first four-year forestry school in the United States at the time. However, Fernow's time as dean of the school was not particularly fruitful. The program was shut down in 1903 by the New York State government as the program was unpopular due to its clear-cutting and the fires it caused<ref>Charles Z. Lincoln, ed. (1910) ''Messages from the Governors', vol. X, Albany, p. 555, cited in Colman, Gould P. (1963) ''Education & Agriculture, A History of the NYS College of Agriculture at Cornell University'', Cornell University Press, p.161.</ref><ref>Gove, B. 2005. Logging railroads of the Adirondacks. Syracuse University Press. pp. 176-181.</ref>. During this same time many wildfires were happening in the area due to the sparks from locomotive stacks landing on log stashes. Louis Marshall, an American constitution and civil-rights lawyer, branded locomotives as an "instrument of arson"<ref>Angus, Christopher.The extraordinary Adirondack journey of Clarence Petty: wilderness guide, pilot, and conservationist, p.17</ref>.Unfortunately, Bernhard Fernow was aware of this and continued to build a controversial railroad system that stretched 6 miles and was primarily used to transport wood. However, In 1907 Bernhard Fernow became the founding dean of the University of Toronto's Faculty of Forestry, this was Canadas first university school devoted to forest fire. To date, Fernow is known to be called the "father of professional forestry in the United States."

=Waste Places=
Fernow noticed that the bulk of American papers which recommended methods for planting forests did not account for places with poor growing conditions. These places were deemed to be "Waste Places" by Fernow. These locations typically were places with inadequate soil structure and/or had problems with water. Fernow believed it was important to learn how to properly "forest" these areas because the interests of agriculture will ultimately confine forests to these places<ref>Fernow 1883, 153-154</ref>.

In One of Fernow’s writings, “Planting in Waste Places,” he describes the conditions in which land needs to be in, in order to produce the most successful yield. According to Fernow, plots of land that are too arid, for example prairie’s, don't serve much and land that is too wet won’t produce any good crop. He then goes on to describe an instrument that was extremely helpful in planting millions of young pines every year. This tool is made up of two parts: the shoe, which was made of iron with one rounded and one flat side, tapering towards the end, in shape like a half cone, so that two of these shoes placed together, with the flat sides, would represent a perfect cone. The second part which is located in the center of the shoe has a threaded hole to receive the handle. The handle consists of a five-eighths inch rod, three and one/half feet long, with a squarely set wood shaft <ref>Fernow 1883 155-156</ref>. At first glance the tool resembles a carrot dangling by a rope on a piece of wood. It is used by throwing the iron cone into the ground where the plant is to stand. A hole is made by moving the cone back and forth. The plant would then be placed within the hole that was created by using this instrument.

According to Bernhard Fernow, a waste place is an area that will not grow grass or any other crop. (Hough 153).

Fernow describes waste Places are unusable because they are either stony, too wet or too dry. Wet locations do not drain well enough, and dry areas can be too sandy for agricultural use. (Hough 153)

It is Fernow's belief that by encouraging tree growth in these areas, they can, in time, become improved enough and will gain value and be able to grow crops. (Hough 153)

=Yield of Wood and When to Cut It=
The purpose of this article was to answer questions of how trees grow, ways in which can encourage tree growth, the best time to harvest trees, and information that should be considered in context to forest control. (Fernow, Charcoal Iron Workers, p. 19) According to Fernow, the weight of charcoal, if properly prepared and housed, is practically a constant factor, since most charcoal is not used fresh, but rather used after weeks when it has absorbed almost all amounts of moisture (up to 10 to 15 per cent)<ref>Bernhard, 1882, 21</ref>.
Fernow believed that low yield of charcoal were due to how the woodcutters used specific types of wood and the length of the sticks they cut. (Fernow, Charcoal Iron Workers, p. 19)

Fernow characterized wood as "log-wood", "billets" and "brush" wood. (Fernow, Charcoal Iron Workers, p. 20)

Fernow believed that charcoal should be sold by weight, not by the bushel since it had a relatively consistent weight. (Fernow, Charcoal Iron Workers, p. 21)

Fernow addressed the idea of the best age for cutting the wood involved mathematical calculation along with knowledge of the forest. This knowledge of the forest would mean knowing when wood had hit its peak and had just started to decline (Fernow, Charcoal Iron Workers, p. 22) .
Fernow noted that For the Prairie States, American papers for planting forests, presuppose that the ground to be planted is arable, or at least workable with the spade<ref>Fernow 1883, 153</ref>

According to Fernow, beech and spruce forests do not exhaust soil nutrients even over thousands of years of occupation. (Fernow, Charcoal Iron Workers, p. 25)

=Notes=

=References=
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1883. “Planting in Waste Places.” The American Journal of Forestry, January, 153–55.
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1882. “The Yield of Wood and When to Cut It.” Journal of the United States Association of Charcoal Iron Workers 3 (1): 19–26.

Bernhard Fernow (1851-1923)

2020-10-07T12:53:59Z

Jakob.kidd: /* Background */

=Background=

Bernhard Fernow was born in the Prussian Province of Posen. In Prussia, Fernow spent a year in the Prussian forest service prior to studying at the University of Königsberg and the Royal Prussian Academy of Forestry at Münden(Fernow wiki). He emigrated to the Unites States in 1876 after marrying his wife Olivia Reynolds, who actively helped him in many of his later projects. Fernow worked many various jobs up until 1878. During this year, he got the opportunity to manage 15,000 acres of woods in Pennsylvania which was primarily used to obtain charcoal. In 1886, Fernow was named the third Chief of the USDA's Division of Forestry of the United States until 1898.
During his time as Chief his main policy goals were the establishment of a national forest system and the introduction of scientific forest management. Fernow produced many scientific reports to protect watersheds while working toward the creation of national forests. During the 1893 Chicago World's Fair, Fernow helped create forestry exhibits that generated much needed public support for the establishment of a Prussian inspired national forest system in the United States<ref>Twight, B.W. 1990. Bernhard Fernow and Prussian forestry in America. [[Journal of Forestry|J For]] 88(2):21-25</ref>. As the head of the USDA's Forestry Division, Fernow helped create the Forest Reserve Act of 1891 and the Organic Act of 1897. After his time as Chief of the USDA's Division of Forestry came to an end, Fernow became the first dean of the New York State College of Forestry at Cornell. This was the first four-year forestry school in the United States at the time. However, Fernow's time as dean of the school was not particularly fruitful. The program was shut down in 1903 by the New York State government as the program was unpopular due to its clear-cutting and the fires it caused<ref>Charles Z. Lincoln, ed. (1910) ''Messages from the Governors', vol. X, Albany, p. 555, cited in Colman, Gould P. (1963) ''Education & Agriculture, A History of the NYS College of Agriculture at Cornell University'', Cornell University Press, p.161.</ref><ref>Gove, B. 2005. Logging railroads of the Adirondacks. Syracuse University Press. pp. 176-181.</ref>. During this same time many wildfires were happening in the area due to the sparks from locomotive stacks landing on log stashes. Louis Marshall, an American constitution and civil-rights lawyer, branded locomotives as an "instrument of arson"<ref>Angus, Christopher.The extraordinary Adirondack journey of Clarence Petty: wilderness guide, pilot, and conservationist, p.17</ref>.Unfortunately, Bernhard Fernow was aware of this and continued to build a controversial railroad system that stretched 6 miles and was primarily used to transport wood. However, In 1907 Bernhard Fernow became the founding dean of the University of Toronto's Faculty of Forestry, this was Canadas first university school devoted to forest fire. To date, Fernow is known to be called the "father of professional forestry in the United States."

=Waste Places=
Fernow noticed that the bulk of American papers that recommended methods for planting forests did not account for places with poor growing conditions. Fernow deemed these places "Waste Places" and these locations were typically places with inadequate soil structure or had problems with water. Fernow believed it was important to learn how to properly "forest" these areas because the interests of agriculture will ultimately confine forests to these places<ref>Fernow 1883, 153-154</ref>.

One of Fernow’s writings, “Planting in Waste Places,” describes the conditions in which land needs to be in, in order to produce the most successful forest. According to Fernow, plots of land that are too arid like prairie’s don't serve much and land that is too wet won’t produce any good crop. He then goes on to describe an instrument that is extremely helpful in planting millions of young pines every year. This tool is made up of two parts: a shoe made of iron with one rounded and one flat side, tapering towards the end, in shape like a half cone, so that two of these shoes placed together, with the flat sides, would represent a perfect cone. The second part is located in the center where there is a threaded hole to receive the handle, which consists of a five-eighths inch rod, three and one- half feet long, with a squarely set wood shaft 155-156</ref>. At first glance the tool resembles a carrot dangling by a rope on a piece of wood. It is used by throwing the iron cone into the ground where the plant is to stand. A hole is made by moving the cone back and forth.

According to Bernhard Fernow, a waste place is an area that will not grow grass or any other crop. (Hough 153).

Fernow describes waste Places are unusable because they are either stony, too wet or too dry. Wet locations do not drain well enough, and dry areas can be too sandy for agricultural use. (Hough 153)

It is Fernow's belief that by encouraging tree growth in these areas, they can, in time, become improved enough and will gain value and be able to grow crops. (Hough 153)

=Yield of Wood and When to Cut It=
The purpose of this article was to answer questions of how trees grow, ways in which can encourage tree growth, the best time to harvest trees, and information that should be considered in context to forest control. (Fernow, Charcoal Iron Workers, p. 19) According to Fernow, the weight of charcoal, if properly prepared and housed, is practically a constant factor, since most charcoal is not used fresh, but rather used after weeks when it has absorbed almost all amounts of moisture (up to 10 to 15 per cent)<ref>Bernhard, 1882, 21</ref>.
Fernow believed that low yield of charcoal were due to how the woodcutters used specific types of wood and the length of the sticks they cut. (Fernow, Charcoal Iron Workers, p. 19)

Fernow characterized wood as "log-wood", "billets" and "brush" wood. (Fernow, Charcoal Iron Workers, p. 20)

Fernow believed that charcoal should be sold by weight, not by the bushel since it had a relatively consistent weight. (Fernow, Charcoal Iron Workers, p. 21)

Fernow addressed the idea of the best age for cutting the wood involved mathematical calculation along with knowledge of the forest. This knowledge of the forest would mean knowing when wood had hit its peak and had just started to decline (Fernow, Charcoal Iron Workers, p. 22) .
Fernow noted that For the Prairie States, American papers for planting forests, presuppose that the ground to be planted is arable, or at least workable with the spade<ref>Fernow 1883, 153</ref>

According to Fernow, beech and spruce forests do not exhaust soil nutrients even over thousands of years of occupation. (Fernow, Charcoal Iron Workers, p. 25)

=Notes=

=References=
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1883. “Planting in Waste Places.” The American Journal of Forestry, January, 153–55.
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1882. “The Yield of Wood and When to Cut It.” Journal of the United States Association of Charcoal Iron Workers 3 (1): 19–26.

Bernhard Fernow (1851-1923)

2020-10-05T18:01:36Z

Jakob.kidd: /* Background */

=Background=

Bernhard Fernow was born in the Prussian Province of Posen. In Prussia, Fernow spent a year in the Prussian forest service prior to studying at the University of Königsberg and the Royal Prussian Academy of Forestry at Münden(Fernow wiki). He emigrated to the Unites States in 1876 after marrying his wife Olivia Reynolds, who actively helped him in many of his later projects. Fernow worked various jobs up until 1878.During the year of 1878 he got the opportunity to manage 15,000 acres of woods in Pennsylvania which was primarily used to obtain charcoal. In 1886, Fernow was named the third Chief of the USDA's Division of Forestry of the United States until 1898.
During his time as Chief his main policy goals were the establishment of a national forest system and introduction of scientific forest management. Fernow produced many scientific reports while working toward the creation of national forests to protect watersheds. During the 1893 Chicago World's Fair Fernow helped produce forestry exhibits that helped generate public support for the establishment of a Prussian inspired national forest ssystem in the United States<ref>Twight, B.W. 1990. Bernhard Fernow and Prussian forestry in America. [[Journal of Forestry|J For]] 88(2):21-25</ref>. As the head if the USDA's Forestry Division Fernow helped create the Forest Reserve Act of 1891 and the Organic Act of 1897. After his time as Chief of the USDA's Division of Forestry, Fernow became the first dean of the New York State College of Forestry at Cornell. This was the first four-year forestry school in the United States however Fernow's time as dean of the school was not particularly fruitful. The program was shut down in 1903 by the New York State government as the program was unpopular due to its clear-cutting and the fires it caused<ref>Charles Z. Lincoln, ed. (1910) ''Messages from the Governors'', vol. X, Albany, p. 555, cited in Colman, Gould P. (1963) ''Education & Agriculture, A History of the NYS College of Agriculture at Cornell University'', Cornell University Press, p.161.</ref><ref>Gove, B. 2005. Logging railroads of the Adirondacks. Syracuse University Press. pp. 176-181.</ref>. During this same time many wildfires were happening due to the sparks from locomotive stacks landing on log stashes. Louis Marshall, an American constitution and civil-rights lawyer, branded locomotives as an "instrument of arson"<ref>Angus, Christopher.The extraordinary Adirondack journey of Clarence Petty: wilderness guide, pilot, and conservationist, p.17</ref>. Bernhard Fernow was aware of this, but continued to build a controversial railroad system that was 6 miles long and was used to transport wood. In 1907 Bernhard Fernow became the founding dean of the University of Toronto's Faculty of Forestry, this was Canadas first university school devoted to forest fire. To date, Fernow is known to be called the "father of professional forestry in the United States."

=Waste Places=
Fernow noticed that the bulk of American papers that recommended methods for planting forests did not account for places with poor growing conditions. Fernow deemed these places "Waste Places" and these locations were typically places with inadequate soil structure or had problems with water. Fernow believed it was important to learn how to properly "forest" these areas because the interests of agriculture will ultimately confine forests to these places<ref>Fernow 1883, 153-154</ref>.

=Yield of Wood and When to Cut It=
According to Fernow, the weight of charcoal, if properly prepared and housed, is practically a constant factor, since most charcoal is not used fresh, but rather used after weeks when it has absorbed almost all amounts of moisture (up to 10 to 15 per cent)<ref>Bernhard, 1882, 21</ref>.

=Notes=

=References=
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1883. “Planting in Waste Places.” The American Journal of Forestry, January, 153–55.
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1882. “The Yield of Wood and When to Cut It.” Journal of the United States Association of Charcoal Iron Workers 3 (1): 19–26.

Bernhard Fernow (1851-1923)

2020-10-05T17:30:53Z

Jakob.kidd: /* Background */

=Background=

Bernhard Fernow was born in the Prussian Province of Posen. In Prussia, Fernow spent a year in the Prussian forest service prior to studying at the University of Königsberg and the Royal Prussian Academy of Forestry at Münden(Fernow wiki). He emigrated to the Unites States in 1876 after marrying his wife Olivia Reynolds, who actively helped him in many of his later projects. Fernow worked various jobs up until 1878.During the year of 1878 he got the opportunity to manage 15,000 acres of woods in Pennsylvania which was primarily used to obtain charcoal. In 1886, Fernow was named the third Chief of the USDA's Division of Forestry of the United States until 1898.
During his time as Chief his main policy goals were the establishment of a national forest system and introduction of scientific forest management. Fernow produced many scientific reports while working toward the creation of national forests to protect watersheds. During the 1893 Chicago World's Fair Fernow helped produce forestry exhibits that helped generate public support for the establishment of a Prussian inspired national forest ssystem in the United States<ref>Twight, B.W. 1990. Bernhard Fernow and Prussian forestry in America. [[Journal of Forestry|J For]] 88(2):21-25</ref>. As the head if the USDA's Forestry Division Fernow helped create the Forest Reserve Act of 1891 and the Organic Act of 1897. After his time as Chief of the USDA's Division of Forestry, Fernow became the first dean of the New York State College of Forestry at Cornell. This was the first four-year forestry school in the United States however Fernow's time as dean of the school was not particularly fruitful. The program was shut down in 1903 by the New York State government as the program was unpopular due to its clear-cutting and the fires it caused<ref>Charles Z. Lincoln, ed. (1910) ''Messages from the Governors'', vol. X, Albany, p. 555, cited in Colman, Gould P. (1963) ''Education & Agriculture, A History of the NYS College of Agriculture at Cornell University'', Cornell University Press, p.161.</ref><ref>Gove, B. 2005. Logging railroads of the Adirondacks. Syracuse University Press. pp. 176-181.</ref>. During this same time many wildfires were happening due to the sparks from locomotive stacks landing on log stashes. Louis Marshall, an American constitution and civil-rights lawyer, branded locomotives as an "instrument of arson"<ref>Angus, Christopher.The extraordinary Adirondack journey of Clarence Petty: wilderness guide, pilot, and conservationist, p.17</ref>. Bernhard Fernow was aware of this, but continued to build a controversial railroad system that was 6 miles long and was used to transport wood. Fernow is known to be called the "father of professional forestry in the United States."

=Waste Places=
Fernow noticed that the bulk of American papers that recommended methods for planting forests did not account for places with poor growing conditions. Fernow deemed these places "Waste Places" and these locations were typically places with inadequate soil structure or had problems with water. Fernow believed it was important to learn how to properly "forest" these areas because the interests of agriculture will ultimately confine forests to these places<ref>Fernow 1883, 153-154</ref>.

=Yield of Wood and When to Cut It=
According to Fernow, the weight of charcoal, if properly prepared and housed, is practically a constant factor, since most charcoal is not used fresh, but rather used after weeks when it has absorbed almost all amounts of moisture (up to 10 to 15 per cent)<ref>Bernhard, 1882, 21</ref>.

=Notes=

=References=
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1883. “Planting in Waste Places.” The American Journal of Forestry, January, 153–55.
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1882. “The Yield of Wood and When to Cut It.” Journal of the United States Association of Charcoal Iron Workers 3 (1): 19–26.

Bernhard Fernow (1851-1923)

2020-10-05T16:28:36Z

Jakob.kidd: /* Background */

=Background=

Bernhard Fernow was born in the Prussian Province of Posen. In Prussia, Fernow spent a year in the Prussian forest service prior to studying at the University of Königsberg and the Royal Prussian Academy of Forestry at Münden(Fernow wiki). He emigrated to the Unites States in 1876 after marrying his wife Olivia Reynolds, who actively helped him in many of his later projects. Fernow worked various jobs up until 1878.During the year of 1878 he got the opportunity to manage 15,000 acres of woods in Pennsylvania which was primarily used to obtain charcoal. In 1886, Fernow was named the third Chief of the USDA's Division of Forestry of the United States until 1898.
During his time as Chief his main policy goals were the establishment of a national forest system and introduction of scientific forest management. Fernow produced many scientific reports while working toward the creation of national forests to protect watersheds. During the 1893 Chicago World's Fair Fernow helped produce forestry exhibits that helped generate public support for the establishment of a Prussian inspired national forest ssystem in the United States<ref>Twight, B.W. 1990. Bernhard Fernow and Prussian forestry in America. [[Journal of Forestry|J For]] 88(2):21-25</ref>. As the head if the USDA's Forestry Division Fernow helped create the Forest Reserve Act of 1891 and the Organic Act of 1897. After his time as Chief of the USDA's Division of Forestry, Fernow became the first dean of the New York State College of Forestry at Cornell. This was the first four-year forestry school in the United States however Fernow's time as dean of the school was not particularly fruitful. The program was shut down in 1903 by the New York State government as the program was unpopular due to its clear-cutting and the fires it caused<ref>Charles Z. Lincoln, ed. (1910) ''Messages from the Governors'', vol. X, Albany, p. 555, cited in Colman, Gould P. (1963) ''Education & Agriculture, A History of the NYS College of Agriculture at Cornell University'', Cornell University Press, p.161.</ref><ref>Gove, B. 2005. Logging railroads of the Adirondacks. Syracuse University Press. pp. 176-181.</ref>. During this same time many wildfires were happening due to the sparks from locomotive stacks landing on log stashes. Louis Marshall who was an American constitution and civil-rights lawyer, branded locomotives as an "instrument of arson"<ref>Angus, Christopher. The extraordinary Adirondack journey of Clarence Petty: wilderness guide, pilot, and conservationist, p.17</ref>. Fernow is known to be called the "father of professional forestry in the United States."

=Waste Places=
Fernow noticed that the bulk of American papers that recommended methods for planting forests did not account for places with poor growing conditions. Fernow deemed these places "Waste Places" and these locations were typically places with inadequate soil structure or had problems with water. Fernow believed it was important to learn how to properly "forest" these areas because the interests of agriculture will ultimately confine forests to these places<ref>Fernow 1883, 153-154</ref>.

=Yield of Wood and When to Cut It=
According to Fernow, the weight of charcoal, if properly prepared and housed, is practically a constant factor, since most charcoal is not used fresh, but rather used after weeks when it has absorbed almost all amounts of moisture (up to 10 to 15 per cent)<ref>Bernhard, 1882, 21</ref>.

=Notes=

=References=
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1883. “Planting in Waste Places.” The American Journal of Forestry, January, 153–55.
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1882. “The Yield of Wood and When to Cut It.” Journal of the United States Association of Charcoal Iron Workers 3 (1): 19–26.

Bernhard Fernow (1851-1923)

2020-10-05T16:14:46Z

Jakob.kidd: /* Background */

=Background=

Bernhard Fernow was born in the Prussian Province of Posen. In Prussia, Fernow spent a year in the Prussian forest service prior to studying at the University of Königsberg and the Royal Prussian Academy of Forestry at Münden(Fernow wiki). He emigrated to the Unites States in 1876 after marrying his wife Olivia Reynolds, who actively helped him in many of his later projects. Fernow worked various jobs up until 1878.During the year of 1878 he got the opportunity to manage 15,000 acres of woods in Pennsylvania which was primarily used to obtain charcoal. In 1886, Fernow was named the third Chief of the USDA's Division of Forestry of the United States until 1898.
During his time as Chief his main policy goals were the establishment of a national forest system and introduction of scientific forest management. Fernow produced many scientific reports while working toward the creation of national forests to protect watersheds. During the 1893 Chicago World's Fair Fernow helped produce forestry exhibits that helped generate public support for the establishment of a Prussian inspired national forest ssystem in the United States<ref>Twight, B.W. 1990. Bernhard Fernow and Prussian forestry in America. [[Journal of Forestry|J For]] 88(2):21-25</ref>. As the head if the USDA's Forestry Division Fernow helped create the Forest Reserve Act of 1891 and the Organic Act of 1897. After his time as Chief of the USDA's Division of Forestry, Fernow became the first dean of the New York State College of Forestry at Cornell. This was the first four-year forestry school in the United States however Fernow's time as dean of the school was not particularly fruitful. The program was shut down in 1903 by the New York State government as the program was unpopular due to its clear-cutting and the fires it caused<ref>Charles Z. Lincoln, ed. (1910) ''Messages from the Governors'', vol. X, Albany, p. 555, cited in Colman, Gould P. (1963) ''Education & Agriculture, A History of the NYS College of Agriculture at Cornell University'', Cornell University Press, p.161.</ref><ref>Gove, B. 2005. Logging railroads of the Adirondacks. Syracuse University Press. pp. 176-181.</ref>. Fernow is known to be called the "father of professional forestry in the United States."

=Waste Places=
Fernow noticed that the bulk of American papers that recommended methods for planting forests did not account for places with poor growing conditions. Fernow deemed these places "Waste Places" and these locations were typically places with inadequate soil structure or had problems with water. Fernow believed it was important to learn how to properly "forest" these areas because the interests of agriculture will ultimately confine forests to these places<ref>Fernow 1883, 153-154</ref>.

=Yield of Wood and When to Cut It=
According to Fernow, the weight of charcoal, if properly prepared and housed, is practically a constant factor, since most charcoal is not used fresh, but rather used after weeks when it has absorbed almost all amounts of moisture (up to 10 to 15 per cent)<ref>Bernhard, 1882, 21</ref>.

=Notes=

=References=
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1883. “Planting in Waste Places.” The American Journal of Forestry, January, 153–55.
Fernow, Bernhard E. 1882. “The Yield of Wood and When to Cut It.” Journal of the United States Association of Charcoal Iron Workers 3 (1): 19–26.

Iron production

2020-09-30T20:34:33Z

Jakob.kidd: /* Fuel */

Iron production converts iron ore into pig iron through a process known as [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smelting smelting]. Early on in the history of iron production in the United States, most furnaces used charcoal as fuel; so [[charcoal production]] and iron production were often closely linked. In fact Charcoal was the only fuel for iron production until the 1830s when the industry began a slow
transition toward the use coal as fuel<ref>Straka 2014, 104</ref>. Ironworks were some of the first and most enduring examples of industry in the United States. Remnants of ironworks can still be found, especially in rural parts of the country<ref>McVarish 2008, 259</ref>.

==History==
In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, small-scale metalworking operations produced everyday objects, such as kitchenware, toys, building materials, and tools<ref>McVarish 2008, 259</ref>. During wartime, cannons and other military weaponry were cast at furnaces<ref>Swank 1884, 35</ref>. Iron plantations were typically in rural communities and often included forges, housing for workers, woodlands for charcoal production, and a sawmill<ref>McVarish 2008, 259</ref>. Bloomeries were early centers of limited iron production. In a bloomery, the iron oxides in ore were reduced to metal and were then separated from the gangue in the ore. The fire created liquid slag and burning charcoal produced carbon dioxide, which reduced the oxide to metallic iron<ref>McVarish 2008, 260</ref>. Blast furnaces were also used for larger-scale iron production. These furnaces could be twenty to thirty feet in height and had hollow centers into which were placed ore, fuel, and flux<ref>McVarish 2008, 260</ref>. Bellows were powered by a water wheel, and melted iron and liquid slag accumulated in the bottom of the furnace<ref>McVarish 2008, 260</ref>. By the nineteenth century, blast furnaces were the most commonly used type of furnace<ref>McVarish 2008, 266</ref>.

Late in the nineteenth century, the Lehigh Valley was second only to Pittsburgh, PA in the yearly value of iron products in the iron districts of the entire country and was ranked first in pig iron districts<ref>Swank 1884, 34</ref>. The Lehigh Valley had fifty anthracite coal furnaces, of which the Bethlehem Iron Company owned six<ref>Swank 1884, 34</ref>.

In 1850 all of the ironworks in Eastern Pennsylvania were accounted for. In Lehigh County there were six anthracite blast furnaces that were in blast and one that was out of blast. There was one hot blast charcoal furnace that was out of blast and one cold blast charcoal furnace that was out of blast. There were no forges and no rolling mills. In Carbon County there was one anthracite blast furnace in blast and one not in blast. There was one hot blast charcoal furnace in blast and one out of blast. There were no cold blast charcoal furnaces. There were four bloomeries, two forges, and no rolling mills<ref>Convention of Iron Masters 1850, 135</ref>.

Iron has been used since primitive times, when it was discovered that iron ore heated would turn into a material that could be reheated and hammered to make useful objects. (McVarish p. 259).While a charcoal kiln site can be identified by brick or stone artifacts, it is harder to identify a charcoal mounds because it was made of wood and dirt. (McVarish 263)

==Iron Communities==
Self-sufficient communities, called iron plantations, were built around these furnaces. Many workers were needed to run an iron plantation, including colliers, miners, woodcutters, molders, founders, patternmakers, and their helpers. In Pennsylvania, Hopewell Furnace employed roughly two hundred to two hundred fifty people during the nineteenth century. Workers at iron plantations would often bring their families along with them. Considering this, the community at Hopewell Furnace would have consisted of about six hundred people<ref>McVarish 2008, 259</ref>. The lands of iron plantations included housing, gristmills and sawmills, farming land, and vast amounts of woodland, as well as barns, company stores, spring-houses, blacksmiths, schools, churches, carpenter's shops, forges, casting houses, charcoal storage, and many other buildings<ref>McVarish 2008, 259</ref>. Iron production required over a hundred acres of woodlands per year<ref>Straka 2014, 105</ref>.

In the 18th and 19th centuries there would have been hundreds of iron furnaces, and each town most likely had a blacksmith and forge. (McVarish p. 259)
Charcoal mounds and kilns were located as close to the wood source as possible, since wood was heavier to move than the charcoal so they were not usually near roads, but were on the sides of hills. (McVarish, p. 263)
Ironmakers hammer or roll the wrought iron to fit the buyer's preference, which might include bars, rods or sheets. (McVarish, p. 278)

==Fuel==
Prior to the 1830s, every furnace in the US burned charcoal as fuel. Charcoal was used because it could be produced in large quantities, it burns hotter than wood, and it is almost pure carbon, so it reduces impurities in iron produced<ref>McVarish 2008, 260</ref>. To make charcoal, a variety of methods were used including hearths and kilns. Hearths were generally used in the pre-Civil War period and involved burning wood in earth-covered mounds. These hearths produced weak charcoal that would crumble easily<ref>McVarish 2008, 262</ref>. Charcoal kilns were made of brick and were more efficient. They also created more durable charcoal than hearths, which yielded charcoal that was more brittle<ref>McVarish 2008, 262</ref>. Kiln remains vary greatly. Smaller remains are usually those of farm kilns, which can be found at the base of hills with roads nearby, while larger remains oriented with a square stone base and occasional steel shells surrounding the base are commercial kilns, and usually placed near railroads. Commercial kiln locations can be found on historical maps from the nineteenth and early twentieth century<ref>McVarish 2008, 265</ref>. Early finers had to use about to 2 to 3 pounds of charcoal in order to produce a pound of iron<ref>McVarish 2008, 268</ref>.Around the 1860s, coal and coke began to replace charcoal in some areas<ref>McVarish 2008, 267</ref>; but overall, iron production increased so much that the use of charcoal continued to rise until 1890. Around the same time perpetual kilns were introduced. These kilns can be characterized by three types of operation, mixed feed, separate-feed, and rotary kilns. Mix feed kilns were the most difficult to manage, the limestone and fuel had to be fed in alternative layers. When running favorable these kilns were the most economically favorable. The next type of kiln is the separate feed kiln. These became the first modern lime kiln which use limestone and fuel not in direct contact. The last type is rotary kilns. These kilns required that the limestone be crushed fairly small and even. One downside for rotary kilns is that they use a lot of fuel<ref>Straka 2014, 264</ref>. The last charcoal-powered furnace in the United States was in blast until 1945<ref>Straka 2014, 104</ref>.
Charcoal pits produced weak charcoal that would easily crumble when it was put in the blast furnace, while charcoal kilns produced more durable charcoal (McVarish p. 262)

Prior to the advent of puddling furnaces coal was never a viable option for iron production because it would contaminate the metal with sulfur <ref>McVarish, 2008, 269</ref>.

==Operation==
Furnace efficiency varied within the industry; the type of ore, equipment used, region, charcoal quality, and furnace type contributed to this<ref>Straka 2014, 105</ref>. [[Ironworks]] had to be near water and sources of raw materials such as charcoal,
limestone, and iron ore<ref>McVarish 2008, 259</ref>. Colonial ironworks used a variety of techniques to produce iron.

===Bloomery===
A bloomery was a small operation that heated iron ore to refine and shape it, which produced wrought iron<ref>McVarish 2008, 259</ref>. Bloomeries needed simple equipment like a hearth, bellows, and tools for manipulating the iron. They had to simultaneously accomplish two tasks: reducing the iron oxides in the ore to metal, and also to separate the metal from the gangue in the ore<ref>McVarish 2008, 260</ref>. Bloomeries were common in colonial America, specifically in Massachusetts, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. They operated between the seventeenth and twentieth centuries. Some disadvantages of bloomeries included limited production, wasted heat, and an inability to completely separate the iron from slag<ref>McVarish 2008, 260</ref>.

Iron ore after it was heated became wrought iron, and the slabs of wrought iron were called blooms (McVarish p. 259).

===Blast Furnace===
Blast furnaces addressed many of the disadvantages of bloomeries, as blast furnaces could be run continuously for months at at time, conserved heat, and could produce much more iron. A blast furnace would have been constructed in a dry location that was not prone to flooding<ref>Overman 1854, 153</ref>. After establishing a location that fit this criteria, the ground would be excavated to ensure that it could support the weight of the stack<ref>Overman 1854, 153-154</ref>. The foundation for the furnace would be constructed so that an additional foot of foundation would extend past the base of the furnace in all directions<ref>Overman 1854, 154</ref>. Blast furnaces were vertical, hollow structures, the top of which would be loaded with ore, fuel, and flux. The bottom had air vents and a hole for the molten iron to run out. Blast furnaces tended to be constructed twenty-five to thirty feet high when they first came into use, and eventually grew to be thirty-two to forty feet high during the nineteenth century with a conical shape on top<ref>McVarish 2008, 262</ref>.

The blast furnaces had very thick stone walls with fire-resistant interior lining. A layer between the lining and outer stones — usually made of clay or smaller stones — provided better insulation and allowed the inner walls to expand slightly when heated<ref>McVarish 2008, 262</ref>. The outer wall was generally constructed of any stone, often granite, grauwach (a dark coarsegrained sedimentary stone), or slate<ref>McVarish 2008, 266</ref>. The inner walls of the furnace were essential to build adequately as it had to stand up to high heat over long periods of time. The hearths in the blast furnaces were typically constructed from sandstone<ref>Overman 1854, 183-184</ref>. Bellows, which pumped air into the furnace to feed the flames, were often powered by waterwheels, equal to about twenty horsepower. By adjusting ventilation, the temperature inside blast furnaces could be controlled to a degree. Blast furnaces were loaded from the top and therefore were often located along hillsides. When the molten iron was ready to be collected, or tapped, a smaller hole at the top was opened to allow the liquid slag, which sat on top of the iron because it was lighter, to be drawn away. After the slag was collected, the main plug was pulled, and the molten iron ran into sand molds. The iron produced in blast furnaces is called pig iron because the final product resembles piglets suckling on their mother. After the iron ran into the molds and was cooled, the "pigs" were broken off the "sows." These smaller pieces were more valuable than the metal in the runners which would need to be remelted<ref>McVarish 2008, 265</ref>. In Pennsylvania, furnaces made roughly ten to twenty-five tons of pig iron or castings per week, with the latter amount rarely being attained<ref>Swank 1884, 35</ref>. By the nineteenth century, the reduction of iron took place almost exclusively in blast furnaces.
A blast furnace was filled with three materials, iron ore, charcoal and limestone. Iron ore could be found in bogs and deposits near the ground. (McVarish, p. 260)By the early 20th century, iron furnaces started using coke and coal instead of charcoal. (McVarish, p. 267) Charcoal and early coke furnaces were similar in construction, the only differences were that coke furnaces generally were larger and required a higher pressure blast<ref>McVarish 2008, 268</ref>.

==The Fining Process==
The Fining Process was brought to the United States in the seventeenth-century. Finer workers would melt pig iron and allow the carbon to oxidize. The iron gathered into a mass called a loup and was then hammered until the slag was removed<ref>McVarish 2008, 268</ref>. These early iron masters had to use charcoal as their main source of fuel as no effective way to use coal as a fuel had been developed yet<ref>McVarish 2008, 268</ref>. For each pound of iron produced a finer had to burn about 2 to 3 pounds of charcoal for fuel<ref>McVarish 2008, 268</ref>.
===Walloon Process===
The Walloon Process was the original fining technique. The Walloon Process involved pushing a pig of iron into a hearth full of charcoal at a downward angle to melt it, working it into a loup, and hammering it to expel slag. The melted metal was then collected from the bottom of the hearth and brought it into the air blast<ref>McVarish, 2008, 268</ref>. From here the finer kept the metal in the air blast until they were convince dthat all the silicon and carbon had already oxidized <ref>McVarish, 2008, 268</ref>. It was after the oxidation that the metal was worked into a loup and then hammered to remove the slag<ref>McVarish, 2008, 268</ref>. Occasionally the loup was reheated during the hammering process<ref>McVarish, 2008, 268</ref>. The Walloon Process required a lot of air to heat the flames and the quality of wrought iron produced was heavily dependent on the skill of the workers making it<ref>McVarish, 2008, 268</ref>.

===Lancashire (Charcoal Hearth) Process===
The Lancashire Process, which was developed in Sweden, involved moving the pig iron through the hottest part of a flame to burn off impurities and allowing the melted iron to accumulate at the bottom. Workers would then lift the iron, cut into it, and force slag in to oxidize what impurities remained. The iron was then broken up, remelted, and formed into a loup via hammering. The Lancashire Process reused heat from the flames to preheat air being pumped in by the bellows, making it more heat-efficient than the Walloon Process<ref>McVarish 2008, 268-269</ref>.

In the United States this process was referred to as the "Charcoal Hearth Process"<ref>McVarish, 2008, 268</ref>. The firing hearth stood at about 4 feet tall and was comprised of water-cooled cast-iron pipes<ref>McVarish, 2008, 268</ref>. This method of iron production made purer iron than that of the Walloon process as the iron from the Lancashire process contained less carbon and slag <ref>McVarish, 2008, 268</ref>.

===Puddling===
Puddling was a larger scale way to produce wrought iron than a finery that was able to use mineral coals instead of charcoal. To prevent impurities from the coal from contaminating the iron, puddling placed the coal in an adjacent chamber to the iron, where most of the heat reached the iron by reflecting off the ceiling. This is where the name "puddling" comes from<ref>McVarish 2008, 269</ref>. Puddlers could handle three times as much iron as a finer, up to six hundred pounds at a time. Workers would push any solidifying clumps of iron under the surface of the molten mix so they would not oxidize. After most of the impurities had oxidized, a worker would split the iron into three lumps, which would be pressed by a machine called a squeezer to remove the remaining liquid slag<ref>McVarish 2008, 270</ref>. The bosh of the furnace was typically constructed from soapstone in Pennsylvania<ref> Overman 1854, 273</ref>.

===Forging===
Forging produced wrought iron using blooms and rods by effectively hammering. Large hammers between fifty and four hundred pounds could be used; lighter hammers typically produced smaller things. Forging hammers were automated by waterwheel or steam power, and could strike up to two hundred and fifty times per minute<ref>McVarish 2008, 271</ref>.

A finer would burn about 2 to 3 pounds of charcoal for every pound of iron made. (McVarish, p. 268)

==The Furnace==
The upper portion of the furnace was conical in shape. The walls had an inner and outer layer; the outer was usually made of granite or slate, while the inner was usually made of sandstone or firebrick because of these substances' durability to withstand high temperatures<ref>McVarish 2008, 266</ref>. Between the two walls was an eight-inch space filled with stone chips or broken cinder-blocks. This space allowed the inner wall to expand and contract comfortably without bursting the outer wall. The area where workers would empty wheelbarrows full of iron ore was called the "trunnel head" or "throat." The opening above the hearth of the shaft below the trunnel head was called the bosh, which supported the furnace burden while funneling the molten slag<ref>McVarish 2008, 266</ref>. The taper of the shaft, bosh, and crucible was entirely dependent on the type of ore smelted, charcoal quality, and what quality of iron was desired as the finished product. In the United States, a straight, uniform forty to fifty foot stack was needed when hydrates and oxides of iron were smelted. Heat-exchanges, or hot blast stoves, were installed in the nineteenth century to increase efficiency. By the early twentieth century, the iron furnaces were forced to change due to the moving times. They grew to be about eighty feet tall; the shape and proportion of the hearth and bosh and the addition of a bellhopper to the trunnel head allowed for the use of new materials<ref>McVarish 2008, 267</ref>.
As coke-burning furnaces were built, the demand for charcoal declined. The transition to coke fuel caused some modifications to the furnaces's structure<ref>McVarish 2008, 267</ref>. Coke powered furnaces were typically taller and and had higher blast pressure than their charcoal counterparts<ref>McVarish 2008, 267</ref>.. There were approximately 500 in the 1860s, but by 1900 there were less than 50. (McVarish p. 263)

==Workers==
There were several different positions that could be held within the iron works. The [[Lives of Workers]] varied as working at the furnace required people of numerous skill sets, resulting in different pay levels and hours worked<ref>Walker 1966, 229</ref>. The furnaces needed managers, clerks, molders, teamsters<ref>Walker 1966, 231</ref>, blacksmiths<ref>Walker 1966, 237</ref>, woodcutters<ref>Walker 1966, 238</ref>, colliers involved in [[charcoal production]], ironmasters<ref>Walker 1966, 248</ref>, and fillers<ref>Walker 1966, 235</ref>. Furnaces also required founders, who supervised the actual operation of the foundry. Founders typically made their way up the ranks to founder by beginning as a laborer, becoming a helper, then a keeper (assistant to the founder), and finally a founder<ref>Walker 1966, 232</ref>.

==Notes==
<references />

==References==
*Convention of Iron Masters. 1850. Documents Relating to the Manufacture of Iron in Pennsylvania. Philadelphia: General Committee. https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/000958393.

*McVarish, Douglas C. 2008. ''American Industrial Archaeology: A Field Guide.'' Walnut Creek, Calif.: Left Coast Press, Inc.

* Straka, T. J. 2014. ''Historic Charcoal Production in the US and Forest Depletion: Development of Production Parameters.'' Advances in Historical Studies, 3, 104-114. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ahs.2014.32010

* Swank, J. Moore. 1878. ''Introduction to a History of Ironmaking and Coal Mining in Pennsylvania.'' Philadelphia: Pub. by the author. https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc2.ark:/13960/t1ng4hm2j&view=2up&seq=40

** Walker, Joseph E. 1966. ''Hopewell Village; a Social and Economic History of an Iron-Making Community.'' Philadelphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press.

Iron production

2020-09-30T20:00:03Z

Jakob.kidd: /* Blast Furnace */

Iron production converts iron ore into pig iron through a process known as [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smelting smelting]. Early on in the history of iron production in the United States, most furnaces used charcoal as fuel; so [[charcoal production]] and iron production were often closely linked. In fact Charcoal was the only fuel for iron production until the 1830s when the industry began a slow
transition toward the use coal as fuel<ref>Straka 2014, 104</ref>. Ironworks were some of the first and most enduring examples of industry in the United States. Remnants of ironworks can still be found, especially in rural parts of the country<ref>McVarish 2008, 259</ref>.

==History==
In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, small-scale metalworking operations produced everyday objects, such as kitchenware, toys, building materials, and tools<ref>McVarish 2008, 259</ref>. During wartime, cannons and other military weaponry were cast at furnaces<ref>Swank 1884, 35</ref>. Iron plantations were typically in rural communities and often included forges, housing for workers, woodlands for charcoal production, and a sawmill<ref>McVarish 2008, 259</ref>. Bloomeries were early centers of limited iron production. In a bloomery, the iron oxides in ore were reduced to metal and were then separated from the gangue in the ore. The fire created liquid slag and burning charcoal produced carbon dioxide, which reduced the oxide to metallic iron<ref>McVarish 2008, 260</ref>. Blast furnaces were also used for larger-scale iron production. These furnaces could be twenty to thirty feet in height and had hollow centers into which were placed ore, fuel, and flux<ref>McVarish 2008, 260</ref>. Bellows were powered by a water wheel, and melted iron and liquid slag accumulated in the bottom of the furnace<ref>McVarish 2008, 260</ref>. By the nineteenth century, blast furnaces were the most commonly used type of furnace<ref>McVarish 2008, 266</ref>.

Late in the nineteenth century, the Lehigh Valley was second only to Pittsburgh, PA in the yearly value of iron products in the iron districts of the entire country and was ranked first in pig iron districts<ref>Swank 1884, 34</ref>. The Lehigh Valley had fifty anthracite coal furnaces, of which the Bethlehem Iron Company owned six<ref>Swank 1884, 34</ref>.

In 1850 all of the ironworks in Eastern Pennsylvania were accounted for. In Lehigh County there were six anthracite blast furnaces that were in blast and one that was out of blast. There was one hot blast charcoal furnace that was out of blast and one cold blast charcoal furnace that was out of blast. There were no forges and no rolling mills. In Carbon County there was one anthracite blast furnace in blast and one not in blast. There was one hot blast charcoal furnace in blast and one out of blast. There were no cold blast charcoal furnaces. There were four bloomeries, two forges, and no rolling mills<ref>Convention of Iron Masters 1850, 135</ref>.

Iron has been used since primitive times, when it was discovered that iron ore heated would turn into a material that could be reheated and hammered to make useful objects. (McVarish p. 259).While a charcoal kiln site can be identified by brick or stone artifacts, it is harder to identify a charcoal mounds because it was made of wood and dirt. (McVarish 263)

==Iron Communities==
Self-sufficient communities, called iron plantations, were built around these furnaces. Many workers were needed to run an iron plantation, including colliers, miners, woodcutters, molders, founders, patternmakers, and their helpers. In Pennsylvania, Hopewell Furnace employed roughly two hundred to two hundred fifty people during the nineteenth century. Workers at iron plantations would often bring their families along with them. Considering this, the community at Hopewell Furnace would have consisted of about six hundred people<ref>McVarish 2008, 259</ref>. The lands of iron plantations included housing, gristmills and sawmills, farming land, and vast amounts of woodland, as well as barns, company stores, spring-houses, blacksmiths, schools, churches, carpenter's shops, forges, casting houses, charcoal storage, and many other buildings<ref>McVarish 2008, 259</ref>. Iron production required over a hundred acres of woodlands per year<ref>Straka 2014, 105</ref>.

In the 18th and 19th centuries there would have been hundreds of iron furnaces, and each town most likely had a blacksmith and forge. (McVarish p. 259)
Charcoal mounds and kilns were located as close to the wood source as possible, since wood was heavier to move than the charcoal so they were not usually near roads, but were on the sides of hills. (McVarish, p. 263)
Ironmakers hammer or roll the wrought iron to fit the buyer's preference, which might include bars, rods or sheets. (McVarish, p. 278)

==Fuel==
Prior to the 1830s, every furnace in the US burned charcoal as fuel. Charcoal was used because it could be produced in large quantities, it burns hotter than wood, and it is almost pure carbon, so it reduces impurities in iron produced<ref>McVarish 2008, 260</ref>. To make charcoal, a variety of methods were used including hearths and kilns. Hearths were generally used in the pre-Civil War period and involved burning wood in earth-covered mounds. These hearths produced weak charcoal that would crumble easily<ref>McVarish 2008, 262</ref>. Charcoal kilns were made of brick and were more efficient. They also created more durable charcoal than hearths, which yielded charcoal that was more brittle<ref>McVarish 2008, 262</ref>. Kiln remains vary greatly. Smaller remains are usually those of farm kilns, which can be found at the base of hills with roads nearby, while larger remains oriented with a square stone base and occasional steel shells surrounding the base are commercial kilns, and usually placed near railroads. Commercial kiln locations can be found on historical maps from the nineteenth and early twentieth century<ref>McVarish 2008, 265</ref>. Around the 1860s, coal and coke began to replace charcoal in some areas<ref>McVarish 2008, 267</ref>; but overall, iron production increased so much that the use of charcoal continued to rise until 1890. The last charcoal-powered furnace in the United States was in blast until 1945<ref>Straka 2014, 104</ref>.
Charcoal pits produced weak charcoal that would easily crumble when it was put in the blast furnace, while charcoal kilns produced more durable charcoal (McVarish p. 262)

Prior to the advent of puddling furnaces coal was never a viable option for iron production because it would contaminate the metal with sulfur <ref>McVarish, 2008, 269</ref>.

==Operation==
Furnace efficiency varied within the industry; the type of ore, equipment used, region, charcoal quality, and furnace type contributed to this<ref>Straka 2014, 105</ref>. [[Ironworks]] had to be near water and sources of raw materials such as charcoal,
limestone, and iron ore<ref>McVarish 2008, 259</ref>. Colonial ironworks used a variety of techniques to produce iron.

===Bloomery===
A bloomery was a small operation that heated iron ore to refine and shape it, which produced wrought iron<ref>McVarish 2008, 259</ref>. Bloomeries needed simple equipment like a hearth, bellows, and tools for manipulating the iron. They had to simultaneously accomplish two tasks: reducing the iron oxides in the ore to metal, and also to separate the metal from the gangue in the ore<ref>McVarish 2008, 260</ref>. Bloomeries were common in colonial America, specifically in Massachusetts, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. They operated between the seventeenth and twentieth centuries. Some disadvantages of bloomeries included limited production, wasted heat, and an inability to completely separate the iron from slag<ref>McVarish 2008, 260</ref>.

Iron ore after it was heated became wrought iron, and the slabs of wrought iron were called blooms (McVarish p. 259).

===Blast Furnace===
Blast furnaces addressed many of the disadvantages of bloomeries, as blast furnaces could be run continuously for months at at time, conserved heat, and could produce much more iron. A blast furnace would have been constructed in a dry location that was not prone to flooding<ref>Overman 1854, 153</ref>. After establishing a location that fit this criteria, the ground would be excavated to ensure that it could support the weight of the stack<ref>Overman 1854, 153-154</ref>. The foundation for the furnace would be constructed so that an additional foot of foundation would extend past the base of the furnace in all directions<ref>Overman 1854, 154</ref>. Blast furnaces were vertical, hollow structures, the top of which would be loaded with ore, fuel, and flux. The bottom had air vents and a hole for the molten iron to run out. Blast furnaces tended to be constructed twenty-five to thirty feet high when they first came into use, and eventually grew to be thirty-two to forty feet high during the nineteenth century with a conical shape on top<ref>McVarish 2008, 262</ref>.

The blast furnaces had very thick stone walls with fire-resistant interior lining. A layer between the lining and outer stones — usually made of clay or smaller stones — provided better insulation and allowed the inner walls to expand slightly when heated<ref>McVarish 2008, 262</ref>. The outer wall was generally constructed of any stone, often granite, grauwach (a dark coarsegrained sedimentary stone), or slate<ref>McVarish 2008, 266</ref>. The inner walls of the furnace were essential to build adequately as it had to stand up to high heat over long periods of time. The hearths in the blast furnaces were typically constructed from sandstone<ref>Overman 1854, 183-184</ref>. Bellows, which pumped air into the furnace to feed the flames, were often powered by waterwheels, equal to about twenty horsepower. By adjusting ventilation, the temperature inside blast furnaces could be controlled to a degree. Blast furnaces were loaded from the top and therefore were often located along hillsides. When the molten iron was ready to be collected, or tapped, a smaller hole at the top was opened to allow the liquid slag, which sat on top of the iron because it was lighter, to be drawn away. After the slag was collected, the main plug was pulled, and the molten iron ran into sand molds. The iron produced in blast furnaces is called pig iron because the final product resembles piglets suckling on their mother. After the iron ran into the molds and was cooled, the "pigs" were broken off the "sows." These smaller pieces were more valuable than the metal in the runners which would need to be remelted<ref>McVarish 2008, 265</ref>. In Pennsylvania, furnaces made roughly ten to twenty-five tons of pig iron or castings per week, with the latter amount rarely being attained<ref>Swank 1884, 35</ref>. By the nineteenth century, the reduction of iron took place almost exclusively in blast furnaces.
A blast furnace was filled with three materials, iron ore, charcoal and limestone. Iron ore could be found in bogs and deposits near the ground. (McVarish, p. 260)By the early 20th century, iron furnaces started using coke and coal instead of charcoal. (McVarish, p. 267) Charcoal and early coke furnaces were similar in construction, the only differences were that coke furnaces generally were larger and required a higher pressure blast<ref>McVarish 2008, 268</ref>.

==The Fining Process==
The Fining Process was brought to the United States in the seventeenth-century. Finer workers would melt pig iron and allow the carbon to oxidize. The iron gathered into a mass called a loup and was then hammered until the slag was removed<ref>McVarish 2008, 268</ref>.

===Walloon Process===
The Walloon Process was the original fining technique. The Walloon Process involved pushing a pig of iron into a hearth full of charcoal at a downward angle to melt it, working it into a loup, and hammering it to expel slag. The melted metal was then collected from the bottom of the hearth and brought it into the air blast<ref>McVarish, 2008, 268</ref>. From here the finer kept the metal in the air blast until they were convince dthat all the silicon and carbon had already oxidized <ref>McVarish, 2008, 268</ref>. It was after the oxidation that the metal was worked into a loup and then hammered to remove the slag<ref>McVarish, 2008, 268</ref>. Occasionally the loup was reheated during the hammering process<ref>McVarish, 2008, 268</ref>. The Walloon Process required a lot of air to heat the flames and the quality of wrought iron produced was heavily dependent on the skill of the workers making it<ref>McVarish, 2008, 268</ref>.

===Lancashire (Charcoal Hearth) Process===
The Lancashire Process, which was developed in Sweden, involved moving the pig iron through the hottest part of a flame to burn off impurities and allowing the melted iron to accumulate at the bottom. Workers would then lift the iron, cut into it, and force slag in to oxidize what impurities remained. The iron was then broken up, remelted, and formed into a loup via hammering. The Lancashire Process reused heat from the flames to preheat air being pumped in by the bellows, making it more heat-efficient than the Walloon Process<ref>McVarish 2008, 268-269</ref>.

In the United States this process was referred to as the "Charcoal Hearth Process"<ref>McVarish, 2008, 268</ref>. The firing hearth stood at about 4 feet tall and was comprised of water-cooled cast-iron pipes<ref>McVarish, 2008, 268</ref>. This method of iron production made purer iron than that of the Walloon process as the iron from the Lancashire process contained less carbon and slag <ref>McVarish, 2008, 268</ref>.

===Puddling===
Puddling was a larger scale way to produce wrought iron than a finery that was able to use mineral coals instead of charcoal. To prevent impurities from the coal from contaminating the iron, puddling placed the coal in an adjacent chamber to the iron, where most of the heat reached the iron by reflecting off the ceiling. This is where the name "puddling" comes from<ref>McVarish 2008, 269</ref>. Puddlers could handle three times as much iron as a finer, up to six hundred pounds at a time. Workers would push any solidifying clumps of iron under the surface of the molten mix so they would not oxidize. After most of the impurities had oxidized, a worker would split the iron into three lumps, which would be pressed by a machine called a squeezer to remove the remaining liquid slag<ref>McVarish 2008, 270</ref>. The bosh of the furnace was typically constructed from soapstone in Pennsylvania<ref> Overman 1854, 273</ref>.

===Forging===
Forging produced wrought iron using blooms and rods by effectively hammering. Large hammers between fifty and four hundred pounds could be used; lighter hammers typically produced smaller things. Forging hammers were automated by waterwheel or steam power, and could strike up to two hundred and fifty times per minute<ref>McVarish 2008, 271</ref>.

A finer would burn about 2 to 3 pounds of charcoal for every pound of iron made. (McVarish, p. 268)

==The Furnace==
The upper portion of the furnace was conical in shape. The walls had an inner and outer layer; the outer was usually made of granite or slate, while the inner was usually made of sandstone or firebrick because of these substances' durability to withstand high temperatures<ref>McVarish 2008, 266</ref>. Between the two walls was an eight-inch space filled with stone chips or broken cinder-blocks. This space allowed the inner wall to expand and contract comfortably without bursting the outer wall. The area where workers would empty wheelbarrows full of iron ore was called the "trunnel head" or "throat." The opening above the hearth of the shaft below the trunnel head was called the bosh, which supported the furnace burden while funneling the molten slag<ref>McVarish 2008, 266</ref>. The taper of the shaft, bosh, and crucible was entirely dependent on the type of ore smelted, charcoal quality, and what quality of iron was desired as the finished product. In the United States, a straight, uniform forty to fifty foot stack was needed when hydrates and oxides of iron were smelted. Heat-exchanges, or hot blast stoves, were installed in the nineteenth century to increase efficiency. By the early twentieth century, the iron furnaces were forced to change due to the moving times. They grew to be about eighty feet tall; the shape and proportion of the hearth and bosh and the addition of a bellhopper to the trunnel head allowed for the use of new materials<ref>McVarish 2008, 267</ref>.
As coke-burning furnaces were built, the demand for charcoal declined. The transition to coke fuel caused some modifications to the furnaces's structure<ref>McVarish 2008, 267</ref>. Coke powered furnaces were typically taller and and had higher blast pressure than their charcoal counterparts<ref>McVarish 2008, 267</ref>.. There were approximately 500 in the 1860s, but by 1900 there were less than 50. (McVarish p. 263)

==Workers==
There were several different positions that could be held within the iron works. The [[Lives of Workers]] varied as working at the furnace required people of numerous skill sets, resulting in different pay levels and hours worked<ref>Walker 1966, 229</ref>. The furnaces needed managers, clerks, molders, teamsters<ref>Walker 1966, 231</ref>, blacksmiths<ref>Walker 1966, 237</ref>, woodcutters<ref>Walker 1966, 238</ref>, colliers involved in [[charcoal production]], ironmasters<ref>Walker 1966, 248</ref>, and fillers<ref>Walker 1966, 235</ref>. Furnaces also required founders, who supervised the actual operation of the foundry. Founders typically made their way up the ranks to founder by beginning as a laborer, becoming a helper, then a keeper (assistant to the founder), and finally a founder<ref>Walker 1966, 232</ref>.

==Notes==
<references />

==References==
*Convention of Iron Masters. 1850. Documents Relating to the Manufacture of Iron in Pennsylvania. Philadelphia: General Committee. https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/000958393.

*McVarish, Douglas C. 2008. ''American Industrial Archaeology: A Field Guide.'' Walnut Creek, Calif.: Left Coast Press, Inc.

* Straka, T. J. 2014. ''Historic Charcoal Production in the US and Forest Depletion: Development of Production Parameters.'' Advances in Historical Studies, 3, 104-114. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ahs.2014.32010

* Swank, J. Moore. 1878. ''Introduction to a History of Ironmaking and Coal Mining in Pennsylvania.'' Philadelphia: Pub. by the author. https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc2.ark:/13960/t1ng4hm2j&view=2up&seq=40

** Walker, Joseph E. 1966. ''Hopewell Village; a Social and Economic History of an Iron-Making Community.'' Philadelphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press.

Iron production

2020-09-30T19:59:43Z

Jakob.kidd: /* Blast Furnace */

Iron production converts iron ore into pig iron through a process known as [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smelting smelting]. Early on in the history of iron production in the United States, most furnaces used charcoal as fuel; so [[charcoal production]] and iron production were often closely linked. In fact Charcoal was the only fuel for iron production until the 1830s when the industry began a slow
transition toward the use coal as fuel<ref>Straka 2014, 104</ref>. Ironworks were some of the first and most enduring examples of industry in the United States. Remnants of ironworks can still be found, especially in rural parts of the country<ref>McVarish 2008, 259</ref>.

==History==
In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, small-scale metalworking operations produced everyday objects, such as kitchenware, toys, building materials, and tools<ref>McVarish 2008, 259</ref>. During wartime, cannons and other military weaponry were cast at furnaces<ref>Swank 1884, 35</ref>. Iron plantations were typically in rural communities and often included forges, housing for workers, woodlands for charcoal production, and a sawmill<ref>McVarish 2008, 259</ref>. Bloomeries were early centers of limited iron production. In a bloomery, the iron oxides in ore were reduced to metal and were then separated from the gangue in the ore. The fire created liquid slag and burning charcoal produced carbon dioxide, which reduced the oxide to metallic iron<ref>McVarish 2008, 260</ref>. Blast furnaces were also used for larger-scale iron production. These furnaces could be twenty to thirty feet in height and had hollow centers into which were placed ore, fuel, and flux<ref>McVarish 2008, 260</ref>. Bellows were powered by a water wheel, and melted iron and liquid slag accumulated in the bottom of the furnace<ref>McVarish 2008, 260</ref>. By the nineteenth century, blast furnaces were the most commonly used type of furnace<ref>McVarish 2008, 266</ref>.

Late in the nineteenth century, the Lehigh Valley was second only to Pittsburgh, PA in the yearly value of iron products in the iron districts of the entire country and was ranked first in pig iron districts<ref>Swank 1884, 34</ref>. The Lehigh Valley had fifty anthracite coal furnaces, of which the Bethlehem Iron Company owned six<ref>Swank 1884, 34</ref>.

In 1850 all of the ironworks in Eastern Pennsylvania were accounted for. In Lehigh County there were six anthracite blast furnaces that were in blast and one that was out of blast. There was one hot blast charcoal furnace that was out of blast and one cold blast charcoal furnace that was out of blast. There were no forges and no rolling mills. In Carbon County there was one anthracite blast furnace in blast and one not in blast. There was one hot blast charcoal furnace in blast and one out of blast. There were no cold blast charcoal furnaces. There were four bloomeries, two forges, and no rolling mills<ref>Convention of Iron Masters 1850, 135</ref>.

Iron has been used since primitive times, when it was discovered that iron ore heated would turn into a material that could be reheated and hammered to make useful objects. (McVarish p. 259).While a charcoal kiln site can be identified by brick or stone artifacts, it is harder to identify a charcoal mounds because it was made of wood and dirt. (McVarish 263)

==Iron Communities==
Self-sufficient communities, called iron plantations, were built around these furnaces. Many workers were needed to run an iron plantation, including colliers, miners, woodcutters, molders, founders, patternmakers, and their helpers. In Pennsylvania, Hopewell Furnace employed roughly two hundred to two hundred fifty people during the nineteenth century. Workers at iron plantations would often bring their families along with them. Considering this, the community at Hopewell Furnace would have consisted of about six hundred people<ref>McVarish 2008, 259</ref>. The lands of iron plantations included housing, gristmills and sawmills, farming land, and vast amounts of woodland, as well as barns, company stores, spring-houses, blacksmiths, schools, churches, carpenter's shops, forges, casting houses, charcoal storage, and many other buildings<ref>McVarish 2008, 259</ref>. Iron production required over a hundred acres of woodlands per year<ref>Straka 2014, 105</ref>.

In the 18th and 19th centuries there would have been hundreds of iron furnaces, and each town most likely had a blacksmith and forge. (McVarish p. 259)
Charcoal mounds and kilns were located as close to the wood source as possible, since wood was heavier to move than the charcoal so they were not usually near roads, but were on the sides of hills. (McVarish, p. 263)
Ironmakers hammer or roll the wrought iron to fit the buyer's preference, which might include bars, rods or sheets. (McVarish, p. 278)

==Fuel==
Prior to the 1830s, every furnace in the US burned charcoal as fuel. Charcoal was used because it could be produced in large quantities, it burns hotter than wood, and it is almost pure carbon, so it reduces impurities in iron produced<ref>McVarish 2008, 260</ref>. To make charcoal, a variety of methods were used including hearths and kilns. Hearths were generally used in the pre-Civil War period and involved burning wood in earth-covered mounds. These hearths produced weak charcoal that would crumble easily<ref>McVarish 2008, 262</ref>. Charcoal kilns were made of brick and were more efficient. They also created more durable charcoal than hearths, which yielded charcoal that was more brittle<ref>McVarish 2008, 262</ref>. Kiln remains vary greatly. Smaller remains are usually those of farm kilns, which can be found at the base of hills with roads nearby, while larger remains oriented with a square stone base and occasional steel shells surrounding the base are commercial kilns, and usually placed near railroads. Commercial kiln locations can be found on historical maps from the nineteenth and early twentieth century<ref>McVarish 2008, 265</ref>. Around the 1860s, coal and coke began to replace charcoal in some areas<ref>McVarish 2008, 267</ref>; but overall, iron production increased so much that the use of charcoal continued to rise until 1890. The last charcoal-powered furnace in the United States was in blast until 1945<ref>Straka 2014, 104</ref>.
Charcoal pits produced weak charcoal that would easily crumble when it was put in the blast furnace, while charcoal kilns produced more durable charcoal (McVarish p. 262)

Prior to the advent of puddling furnaces coal was never a viable option for iron production because it would contaminate the metal with sulfur <ref>McVarish, 2008, 269</ref>.

==Operation==
Furnace efficiency varied within the industry; the type of ore, equipment used, region, charcoal quality, and furnace type contributed to this<ref>Straka 2014, 105</ref>. [[Ironworks]] had to be near water and sources of raw materials such as charcoal,
limestone, and iron ore<ref>McVarish 2008, 259</ref>. Colonial ironworks used a variety of techniques to produce iron.

===Bloomery===
A bloomery was a small operation that heated iron ore to refine and shape it, which produced wrought iron<ref>McVarish 2008, 259</ref>. Bloomeries needed simple equipment like a hearth, bellows, and tools for manipulating the iron. They had to simultaneously accomplish two tasks: reducing the iron oxides in the ore to metal, and also to separate the metal from the gangue in the ore<ref>McVarish 2008, 260</ref>. Bloomeries were common in colonial America, specifically in Massachusetts, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. They operated between the seventeenth and twentieth centuries. Some disadvantages of bloomeries included limited production, wasted heat, and an inability to completely separate the iron from slag<ref>McVarish 2008, 260</ref>.

Iron ore after it was heated became wrought iron, and the slabs of wrought iron were called blooms (McVarish p. 259).

===Blast Furnace===
Blast furnaces addressed many of the disadvantages of bloomeries, as blast furnaces could be run continuously for months at at time, conserved heat, and could produce much more iron. A blast furnace would have been constructed in a dry location that was not prone to flooding<ref>Overman 1854, 153</ref>. After establishing a location that fit this criteria, the ground would be excavated to ensure that it could support the weight of the stack<ref>Overman 1854, 153-154</ref>. The foundation for the furnace would be constructed so that an additional foot of foundation would extend past the base of the furnace in all directions<ref>Overman 1854, 154</ref>. Blast furnaces were vertical, hollow structures, the top of which would be loaded with ore, fuel, and flux. The bottom had air vents and a hole for the molten iron to run out. Blast furnaces tended to be constructed twenty-five to thirty feet high when they first came into use, and eventually grew to be thirty-two to forty feet high during the nineteenth century with a conical shape on top<ref>McVarish 2008, 262</ref>.

The blast furnaces had very thick stone walls with fire-resistant interior lining. A layer between the lining and outer stones — usually made of clay or smaller stones — provided better insulation and allowed the inner walls to expand slightly when heated<ref>McVarish 2008, 262</ref>. The outer wall was generally constructed of any stone, often granite, grauwach (a dark coarsegrained sedimentary stone), or slate<ref>McVarish 2008, 266</ref>. The inner walls of the furnace were essential to build adequately as it had to stand up to high heat over long periods of time. The hearths in the blast furnaces were typically constructed from sandstone<ref>Overman 1854, 183-184</ref>. Bellows, which pumped air into the furnace to feed the flames, were often powered by waterwheels, equal to about twenty horsepower. By adjusting ventilation, the temperature inside blast furnaces could be controlled to a degree. Blast furnaces were loaded from the top and therefore were often located along hillsides. When the molten iron was ready to be collected, or tapped, a smaller hole at the top was opened to allow the liquid slag, which sat on top of the iron because it was lighter, to be drawn away. After the slag was collected, the main plug was pulled, and the molten iron ran into sand molds. The iron produced in blast furnaces is called pig iron because the final product resembles piglets suckling on their mother. After the iron ran into the molds and was cooled, the "pigs" were broken off the "sows." These smaller pieces were more valuable than the metal in the runners which would need to be remelted<ref>McVarish 2008, 265</ref>. In Pennsylvania, furnaces made roughly ten to twenty-five tons of pig iron or castings per week, with the latter amount rarely being attained<ref>Swank 1884, 35</ref>. By the nineteenth century, the reduction of iron took place almost exclusively in blast furnaces.
A blast furnace was filled with three materials, iron ore, charcoal and limestone. Iron ore could be found in bogs and deposits near the ground. (McVarish, p. 260)By the early 20th century, iron furnaces started using coke and coal instead of charcoal. (McVarish, p. 267) Charcoal and early coke furnaces were similar in construction, the only differences are that coke furnaces generally were larger and required a higher pressure blast<ref>McVarish 2008, 268</ref>.

==The Fining Process==
The Fining Process was brought to the United States in the seventeenth-century. Finer workers would melt pig iron and allow the carbon to oxidize. The iron gathered into a mass called a loup and was then hammered until the slag was removed<ref>McVarish 2008, 268</ref>.

===Walloon Process===
The Walloon Process was the original fining technique. The Walloon Process involved pushing a pig of iron into a hearth full of charcoal at a downward angle to melt it, working it into a loup, and hammering it to expel slag. The melted metal was then collected from the bottom of the hearth and brought it into the air blast<ref>McVarish, 2008, 268</ref>. From here the finer kept the metal in the air blast until they were convince dthat all the silicon and carbon had already oxidized <ref>McVarish, 2008, 268</ref>. It was after the oxidation that the metal was worked into a loup and then hammered to remove the slag<ref>McVarish, 2008, 268</ref>. Occasionally the loup was reheated during the hammering process<ref>McVarish, 2008, 268</ref>. The Walloon Process required a lot of air to heat the flames and the quality of wrought iron produced was heavily dependent on the skill of the workers making it<ref>McVarish, 2008, 268</ref>.

===Lancashire (Charcoal Hearth) Process===
The Lancashire Process, which was developed in Sweden, involved moving the pig iron through the hottest part of a flame to burn off impurities and allowing the melted iron to accumulate at the bottom. Workers would then lift the iron, cut into it, and force slag in to oxidize what impurities remained. The iron was then broken up, remelted, and formed into a loup via hammering. The Lancashire Process reused heat from the flames to preheat air being pumped in by the bellows, making it more heat-efficient than the Walloon Process<ref>McVarish 2008, 268-269</ref>.

In the United States this process was referred to as the "Charcoal Hearth Process"<ref>McVarish, 2008, 268</ref>. The firing hearth stood at about 4 feet tall and was comprised of water-cooled cast-iron pipes<ref>McVarish, 2008, 268</ref>. This method of iron production made purer iron than that of the Walloon process as the iron from the Lancashire process contained less carbon and slag <ref>McVarish, 2008, 268</ref>.

===Puddling===
Puddling was a larger scale way to produce wrought iron than a finery that was able to use mineral coals instead of charcoal. To prevent impurities from the coal from contaminating the iron, puddling placed the coal in an adjacent chamber to the iron, where most of the heat reached the iron by reflecting off the ceiling. This is where the name "puddling" comes from<ref>McVarish 2008, 269</ref>. Puddlers could handle three times as much iron as a finer, up to six hundred pounds at a time. Workers would push any solidifying clumps of iron under the surface of the molten mix so they would not oxidize. After most of the impurities had oxidized, a worker would split the iron into three lumps, which would be pressed by a machine called a squeezer to remove the remaining liquid slag<ref>McVarish 2008, 270</ref>. The bosh of the furnace was typically constructed from soapstone in Pennsylvania<ref> Overman 1854, 273</ref>.

===Forging===
Forging produced wrought iron using blooms and rods by effectively hammering. Large hammers between fifty and four hundred pounds could be used; lighter hammers typically produced smaller things. Forging hammers were automated by waterwheel or steam power, and could strike up to two hundred and fifty times per minute<ref>McVarish 2008, 271</ref>.

A finer would burn about 2 to 3 pounds of charcoal for every pound of iron made. (McVarish, p. 268)

==The Furnace==
The upper portion of the furnace was conical in shape. The walls had an inner and outer layer; the outer was usually made of granite or slate, while the inner was usually made of sandstone or firebrick because of these substances' durability to withstand high temperatures<ref>McVarish 2008, 266</ref>. Between the two walls was an eight-inch space filled with stone chips or broken cinder-blocks. This space allowed the inner wall to expand and contract comfortably without bursting the outer wall. The area where workers would empty wheelbarrows full of iron ore was called the "trunnel head" or "throat." The opening above the hearth of the shaft below the trunnel head was called the bosh, which supported the furnace burden while funneling the molten slag<ref>McVarish 2008, 266</ref>. The taper of the shaft, bosh, and crucible was entirely dependent on the type of ore smelted, charcoal quality, and what quality of iron was desired as the finished product. In the United States, a straight, uniform forty to fifty foot stack was needed when hydrates and oxides of iron were smelted. Heat-exchanges, or hot blast stoves, were installed in the nineteenth century to increase efficiency. By the early twentieth century, the iron furnaces were forced to change due to the moving times. They grew to be about eighty feet tall; the shape and proportion of the hearth and bosh and the addition of a bellhopper to the trunnel head allowed for the use of new materials<ref>McVarish 2008, 267</ref>.
As coke-burning furnaces were built, the demand for charcoal declined. The transition to coke fuel caused some modifications to the furnaces's structure<ref>McVarish 2008, 267</ref>. Coke powered furnaces were typically taller and and had higher blast pressure than their charcoal counterparts<ref>McVarish 2008, 267</ref>.. There were approximately 500 in the 1860s, but by 1900 there were less than 50. (McVarish p. 263)

==Workers==
There were several different positions that could be held within the iron works. The [[Lives of Workers]] varied as working at the furnace required people of numerous skill sets, resulting in different pay levels and hours worked<ref>Walker 1966, 229</ref>. The furnaces needed managers, clerks, molders, teamsters<ref>Walker 1966, 231</ref>, blacksmiths<ref>Walker 1966, 237</ref>, woodcutters<ref>Walker 1966, 238</ref>, colliers involved in [[charcoal production]], ironmasters<ref>Walker 1966, 248</ref>, and fillers<ref>Walker 1966, 235</ref>. Furnaces also required founders, who supervised the actual operation of the foundry. Founders typically made their way up the ranks to founder by beginning as a laborer, becoming a helper, then a keeper (assistant to the founder), and finally a founder<ref>Walker 1966, 232</ref>.

==Notes==
<references />

==References==
*Convention of Iron Masters. 1850. Documents Relating to the Manufacture of Iron in Pennsylvania. Philadelphia: General Committee. https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/000958393.

*McVarish, Douglas C. 2008. ''American Industrial Archaeology: A Field Guide.'' Walnut Creek, Calif.: Left Coast Press, Inc.

* Straka, T. J. 2014. ''Historic Charcoal Production in the US and Forest Depletion: Development of Production Parameters.'' Advances in Historical Studies, 3, 104-114. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ahs.2014.32010

* Swank, J. Moore. 1878. ''Introduction to a History of Ironmaking and Coal Mining in Pennsylvania.'' Philadelphia: Pub. by the author. https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc2.ark:/13960/t1ng4hm2j&view=2up&seq=40

** Walker, Joseph E. 1966. ''Hopewell Village; a Social and Economic History of an Iron-Making Community.'' Philadelphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press.

Iron production

2020-09-30T19:47:29Z

Jakob.kidd: /* Bloomery */

Iron production converts iron ore into pig iron through a process known as [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smelting smelting]. Early on in the history of iron production in the United States, most furnaces used charcoal as fuel; so [[charcoal production]] and iron production were often closely linked. In fact Charcoal was the only fuel for iron production until the 1830s when the industry began a slow
transition toward the use coal as fuel<ref>Straka 2014, 104</ref>. Ironworks were some of the first and most enduring examples of industry in the United States. Remnants of ironworks can still be found, especially in rural parts of the country<ref>McVarish 2008, 259</ref>.

==History==
In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, small-scale metalworking operations produced everyday objects, such as kitchenware, toys, building materials, and tools<ref>McVarish 2008, 259</ref>. During wartime, cannons and other military weaponry were cast at furnaces<ref>Swank 1884, 35</ref>. Iron plantations were typically in rural communities and often included forges, housing for workers, woodlands for charcoal production, and a sawmill<ref>McVarish 2008, 259</ref>. Bloomeries were early centers of limited iron production. In a bloomery, the iron oxides in ore were reduced to metal and were then separated from the gangue in the ore. The fire created liquid slag and burning charcoal produced carbon dioxide, which reduced the oxide to metallic iron<ref>McVarish 2008, 260</ref>. Blast furnaces were also used for larger-scale iron production. These furnaces could be twenty to thirty feet in height and had hollow centers into which were placed ore, fuel, and flux<ref>McVarish 2008, 260</ref>. Bellows were powered by a water wheel, and melted iron and liquid slag accumulated in the bottom of the furnace<ref>McVarish 2008, 260</ref>. By the nineteenth century, blast furnaces were the most commonly used type of furnace<ref>McVarish 2008, 266</ref>.

Late in the nineteenth century, the Lehigh Valley was second only to Pittsburgh, PA in the yearly value of iron products in the iron districts of the entire country and was ranked first in pig iron districts<ref>Swank 1884, 34</ref>. The Lehigh Valley had fifty anthracite coal furnaces, of which the Bethlehem Iron Company owned six<ref>Swank 1884, 34</ref>.

In 1850 all of the ironworks in Eastern Pennsylvania were accounted for. In Lehigh County there were six anthracite blast furnaces that were in blast and one that was out of blast. There was one hot blast charcoal furnace that was out of blast and one cold blast charcoal furnace that was out of blast. There were no forges and no rolling mills. In Carbon County there was one anthracite blast furnace in blast and one not in blast. There was one hot blast charcoal furnace in blast and one out of blast. There were no cold blast charcoal furnaces. There were four bloomeries, two forges, and no rolling mills<ref>Convention of Iron Masters 1850, 135</ref>.

Iron has been used since primitive times, when it was discovered that iron ore heated would turn into a material that could be reheated and hammered to make useful objects. (McVarish p. 259).While a charcoal kiln site can be identified by brick or stone artifacts, it is harder to identify a charcoal mounds because it was made of wood and dirt. (McVarish 263)

==Iron Communities==
Self-sufficient communities, called iron plantations, were built around these furnaces. Many workers were needed to run an iron plantation, including colliers, miners, woodcutters, molders, founders, patternmakers, and their helpers. In Pennsylvania, Hopewell Furnace employed roughly two hundred to two hundred fifty people during the nineteenth century. Workers at iron plantations would often bring their families along with them. Considering this, the community at Hopewell Furnace would have consisted of about six hundred people<ref>McVarish 2008, 259</ref>. The lands of iron plantations included housing, gristmills and sawmills, farming land, and vast amounts of woodland, as well as barns, company stores, spring-houses, blacksmiths, schools, churches, carpenter's shops, forges, casting houses, charcoal storage, and many other buildings<ref>McVarish 2008, 259</ref>. Iron production required over a hundred acres of woodlands per year<ref>Straka 2014, 105</ref>.

In the 18th and 19th centuries there would have been hundreds of iron furnaces, and each town most likely had a blacksmith and forge. (McVarish p. 259)
Charcoal mounds and kilns were located as close to the wood source as possible, since wood was heavier to move than the charcoal so they were not usually near roads, but were on the sides of hills. (McVarish, p. 263)
Ironmakers hammer or roll the wrought iron to fit the buyer's preference, which might include bars, rods or sheets. (McVarish, p. 278)

==Fuel==
Prior to the 1830s, every furnace in the US burned charcoal as fuel. Charcoal was used because it could be produced in large quantities, it burns hotter than wood, and it is almost pure carbon, so it reduces impurities in iron produced<ref>McVarish 2008, 260</ref>. To make charcoal, a variety of methods were used including hearths and kilns. Hearths were generally used in the pre-Civil War period and involved burning wood in earth-covered mounds. These hearths produced weak charcoal that would crumble easily<ref>McVarish 2008, 262</ref>. Charcoal kilns were made of brick and were more efficient. They also created more durable charcoal than hearths, which yielded charcoal that was more brittle<ref>McVarish 2008, 262</ref>. Kiln remains vary greatly. Smaller remains are usually those of farm kilns, which can be found at the base of hills with roads nearby, while larger remains oriented with a square stone base and occasional steel shells surrounding the base are commercial kilns, and usually placed near railroads. Commercial kiln locations can be found on historical maps from the nineteenth and early twentieth century<ref>McVarish 2008, 265</ref>. Around the 1860s, coal and coke began to replace charcoal in some areas<ref>McVarish 2008, 267</ref>; but overall, iron production increased so much that the use of charcoal continued to rise until 1890. The last charcoal-powered furnace in the United States was in blast until 1945<ref>Straka 2014, 104</ref>.
Charcoal pits produced weak charcoal that would easily crumble when it was put in the blast furnace, while charcoal kilns produced more durable charcoal (McVarish p. 262)

Prior to the advent of puddling furnaces coal was never a viable option for iron production because it would contaminate the metal with sulfur <ref>McVarish, 2008, 269</ref>.

==Operation==
Furnace efficiency varied within the industry; the type of ore, equipment used, region, charcoal quality, and furnace type contributed to this<ref>Straka 2014, 105</ref>. [[Ironworks]] had to be near water and sources of raw materials such as charcoal,
limestone, and iron ore<ref>McVarish 2008, 259</ref>. Colonial ironworks used a variety of techniques to produce iron.

===Bloomery===
A bloomery was a small operation that heated iron ore to refine and shape it, which produced wrought iron<ref>McVarish 2008, 259</ref>. Bloomeries needed simple equipment like a hearth, bellows, and tools for manipulating the iron. They had to simultaneously accomplish two tasks: reducing the iron oxides in the ore to metal, and also to separate the metal from the gangue in the ore<ref>McVarish 2008, 260</ref>. Bloomeries were common in colonial America, specifically in Massachusetts, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. They operated between the seventeenth and twentieth centuries. Some disadvantages of bloomeries included limited production, wasted heat, and an inability to completely separate the iron from slag<ref>McVarish 2008, 260</ref>.

Iron ore after it was heated became wrought iron, and the slabs of wrought iron were called blooms (McVarish p. 259).

===Blast Furnace===
Blast furnaces addressed many of the disadvantages of bloomeries, as blast furnaces could be run continuously for months at at time, conserved heat, and could produce much more iron. A blast furnace would have been constructed in a dry location that was not prone to flooding<ref>Overman 1854, 153</ref>. After establishing a location that fit this criteria, the ground would be excavated to ensure that it could support the weight of the stack<ref>Overman 1854, 153-154</ref>. The foundation for the furnace would be constructed so that an additional foot of foundation would extend past the base of the furnace in all directions<ref>Overman 1854, 154</ref>. Blast furnaces were vertical, hollow structures, the top of which would be loaded with ore, fuel, and flux. The bottom had air vents and a hole for the molten iron to run out. Blast furnaces tended to be constructed twenty-five to thirty feet high when they first came into use, and eventually grew to be thirty-two to forty feet high during the nineteenth century with a conical shape on top<ref>McVarish 2008, 262</ref>.

The blast furnaces had very thick stone walls with fire-resistant interior lining. A layer between the lining and outer stones — usually made of clay or smaller stones — provided better insulation and allowed the inner walls to expand slightly when heated<ref>McVarish 2008, 262</ref>. The outer wall was generally constructed of any stone, often granite, grauwach (a dark coarsegrained sedimentary stone), or slate<ref>McVarish 2008, 266</ref>. The inner walls of the furnace were essential to build adequately as it had to stand up to high heat over long periods of time. The hearths in the blast furnaces were typically constructed from sandstone<ref>Overman 1854, 183-184</ref>. Bellows, which pumped air into the furnace to feed the flames, were often powered by waterwheels, equal to about twenty horsepower. By adjusting ventilation, the temperature inside blast furnaces could be controlled to a degree. Blast furnaces were loaded from the top and therefore were often located along hillsides. When the molten iron was ready to be collected, or tapped, a smaller hole at the top was opened to allow the liquid slag, which sat on top of the iron because it was lighter, to be drawn away. After the slag was collected, the main plug was pulled, and the molten iron ran into sand molds. The iron produced in blast furnaces is called pig iron because the final product resembles piglets suckling on their mother. After the iron ran into the molds and was cooled, the "pigs" were broken off the "sows." These smaller pieces were more valuable than the metal in the runners which would need to be remelted<ref>McVarish 2008, 265</ref>. In Pennsylvania, furnaces made roughly ten to twenty-five tons of pig iron or castings per week, with the latter amount rarely being attained<ref>Swank 1884, 35</ref>. By the nineteenth century, the reduction of iron took place almost exclusively in blast furnaces.
A blast furnace was filled with three materials, iron ore, charcoal and limestone. Iron ore could be found in bogs and deposits near the ground. (McVarish, p. 260)By the early 20th century, iron furnaces started using coke and coal instead of charcoal. (McVarish, p. 267)

==The Fining Process==
The Fining Process was brought to the United States in the seventeenth-century. Finer workers would melt pig iron and allow the carbon to oxidize. The iron gathered into a mass called a loup and was then hammered until the slag was removed<ref>McVarish 2008, 268</ref>.

===Walloon Process===
The Walloon Process was the original fining technique. The Walloon Process involved pushing a pig of iron into a hearth full of charcoal at a downward angle to melt it, working it into a loup, and hammering it to expel slag. The melted metal was then collected from the bottom of the hearth and brought it into the air blast<ref>McVarish, 2008, 268</ref>. From here the finer kept the metal in the air blast until they were convince dthat all the silicon and carbon had already oxidized <ref>McVarish, 2008, 268</ref>. It was after the oxidation that the metal was worked into a loup and then hammered to remove the slag<ref>McVarish, 2008, 268</ref>. Occasionally the loup was reheated during the hammering process<ref>McVarish, 2008, 268</ref>. The Walloon Process required a lot of air to heat the flames and the quality of wrought iron produced was heavily dependent on the skill of the workers making it<ref>McVarish, 2008, 268</ref>.

===Lancashire (Charcoal Hearth) Process===
The Lancashire Process, which was developed in Sweden, involved moving the pig iron through the hottest part of a flame to burn off impurities and allowing the melted iron to accumulate at the bottom. Workers would then lift the iron, cut into it, and force slag in to oxidize what impurities remained. The iron was then broken up, remelted, and formed into a loup via hammering. The Lancashire Process reused heat from the flames to preheat air being pumped in by the bellows, making it more heat-efficient than the Walloon Process<ref>McVarish 2008, 268-269</ref>.

In the United States this process was referred to as the "Charcoal Hearth Process"<ref>McVarish, 2008, 268</ref>. The firing hearth stood at about 4 feet tall and was comprised of water-cooled cast-iron pipes<ref>McVarish, 2008, 268</ref>. This method of iron production made purer iron than that of the Walloon process as the iron from the Lancashire process contained less carbon and slag <ref>McVarish, 2008, 268</ref>.

===Puddling===
Puddling was a larger scale way to produce wrought iron than a finery that was able to use mineral coals instead of charcoal. To prevent impurities from the coal from contaminating the iron, puddling placed the coal in an adjacent chamber to the iron, where most of the heat reached the iron by reflecting off the ceiling. This is where the name "puddling" comes from<ref>McVarish 2008, 269</ref>. Puddlers could handle three times as much iron as a finer, up to six hundred pounds at a time. Workers would push any solidifying clumps of iron under the surface of the molten mix so they would not oxidize. After most of the impurities had oxidized, a worker would split the iron into three lumps, which would be pressed by a machine called a squeezer to remove the remaining liquid slag<ref>McVarish 2008, 270</ref>. The bosh of the furnace was typically constructed from soapstone in Pennsylvania<ref> Overman 1854, 273</ref>.

===Forging===
Forging produced wrought iron using blooms and rods by effectively hammering. Large hammers between fifty and four hundred pounds could be used; lighter hammers typically produced smaller things. Forging hammers were automated by waterwheel or steam power, and could strike up to two hundred and fifty times per minute<ref>McVarish 2008, 271</ref>.

A finer would burn about 2 to 3 pounds of charcoal for every pound of iron made. (McVarish, p. 268)

==The Furnace==
The upper portion of the furnace was conical in shape. The walls had an inner and outer layer; the outer was usually made of granite or slate, while the inner was usually made of sandstone or firebrick because of these substances' durability to withstand high temperatures<ref>McVarish 2008, 266</ref>. Between the two walls was an eight-inch space filled with stone chips or broken cinder-blocks. This space allowed the inner wall to expand and contract comfortably without bursting the outer wall. The area where workers would empty wheelbarrows full of iron ore was called the "trunnel head" or "throat." The opening above the hearth of the shaft below the trunnel head was called the bosh, which supported the furnace burden while funneling the molten slag<ref>McVarish 2008, 266</ref>. The taper of the shaft, bosh, and crucible was entirely dependent on the type of ore smelted, charcoal quality, and what quality of iron was desired as the finished product. In the United States, a straight, uniform forty to fifty foot stack was needed when hydrates and oxides of iron were smelted. Heat-exchanges, or hot blast stoves, were installed in the nineteenth century to increase efficiency. By the early twentieth century, the iron furnaces were forced to change due to the moving times. They grew to be about eighty feet tall; the shape and proportion of the hearth and bosh and the addition of a bellhopper to the trunnel head allowed for the use of new materials<ref>McVarish 2008, 267</ref>.
As coke-burning furnaces were built, the demand for charcoal declined. There were approximately 500 in the 1860s, but by 1900 there were less than 50. (McVarish p. 263)

==Workers==
There were several different positions that could be held within the iron works. The [[Lives of Workers]] varied as working at the furnace required people of numerous skill sets, resulting in different pay levels and hours worked<ref>Walker 1966, 229</ref>. The furnaces needed managers, clerks, molders, teamsters<ref>Walker 1966, 231</ref>, blacksmiths<ref>Walker 1966, 237</ref>, woodcutters<ref>Walker 1966, 238</ref>, colliers involved in [[charcoal production]], ironmasters<ref>Walker 1966, 248</ref>, and fillers<ref>Walker 1966, 235</ref>. Furnaces also required founders, who supervised the actual operation of the foundry. Founders typically made their way up the ranks to founder by beginning as a laborer, becoming a helper, then a keeper (assistant to the founder), and finally a founder<ref>Walker 1966, 232</ref>.

==Notes==
<references />

==References==
*Convention of Iron Masters. 1850. Documents Relating to the Manufacture of Iron in Pennsylvania. Philadelphia: General Committee. https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/000958393.

*McVarish, Douglas C. 2008. ''American Industrial Archaeology: A Field Guide.'' Walnut Creek, Calif.: Left Coast Press, Inc.

* Straka, T. J. 2014. ''Historic Charcoal Production in the US and Forest Depletion: Development of Production Parameters.'' Advances in Historical Studies, 3, 104-114. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ahs.2014.32010

* Swank, J. Moore. 1878. ''Introduction to a History of Ironmaking and Coal Mining in Pennsylvania.'' Philadelphia: Pub. by the author. https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc2.ark:/13960/t1ng4hm2j&view=2up&seq=40

** Walker, Joseph E. 1966. ''Hopewell Village; a Social and Economic History of an Iron-Making Community.'' Philadelphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press.

Iron production

2020-09-30T19:42:52Z

Jakob.kidd: /* Fuel */

Iron production converts iron ore into pig iron through a process known as [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smelting smelting]. Early on in the history of iron production in the United States, most furnaces used charcoal as fuel; so [[charcoal production]] and iron production were often closely linked. In fact Charcoal was the only fuel for iron production until the 1830s when the industry began a slow
transition toward the use coal as fuel<ref>Straka 2014, 104</ref>. Ironworks were some of the first and most enduring examples of industry in the United States. Remnants of ironworks can still be found, especially in rural parts of the country<ref>McVarish 2008, 259</ref>.

==History==
In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, small-scale metalworking operations produced everyday objects, such as kitchenware, toys, building materials, and tools<ref>McVarish 2008, 259</ref>. During wartime, cannons and other military weaponry were cast at furnaces<ref>Swank 1884, 35</ref>. Iron plantations were typically in rural communities and often included forges, housing for workers, woodlands for charcoal production, and a sawmill<ref>McVarish 2008, 259</ref>. Bloomeries were early centers of limited iron production. In a bloomery, the iron oxides in ore were reduced to metal and were then separated from the gangue in the ore. The fire created liquid slag and burning charcoal produced carbon dioxide, which reduced the oxide to metallic iron<ref>McVarish 2008, 260</ref>. Blast furnaces were also used for larger-scale iron production. These furnaces could be twenty to thirty feet in height and had hollow centers into which were placed ore, fuel, and flux<ref>McVarish 2008, 260</ref>. Bellows were powered by a water wheel, and melted iron and liquid slag accumulated in the bottom of the furnace<ref>McVarish 2008, 260</ref>. By the nineteenth century, blast furnaces were the most commonly used type of furnace<ref>McVarish 2008, 266</ref>.

Late in the nineteenth century, the Lehigh Valley was second only to Pittsburgh, PA in the yearly value of iron products in the iron districts of the entire country and was ranked first in pig iron districts<ref>Swank 1884, 34</ref>. The Lehigh Valley had fifty anthracite coal furnaces, of which the Bethlehem Iron Company owned six<ref>Swank 1884, 34</ref>.

In 1850 all of the ironworks in Eastern Pennsylvania were accounted for. In Lehigh County there were six anthracite blast furnaces that were in blast and one that was out of blast. There was one hot blast charcoal furnace that was out of blast and one cold blast charcoal furnace that was out of blast. There were no forges and no rolling mills. In Carbon County there was one anthracite blast furnace in blast and one not in blast. There was one hot blast charcoal furnace in blast and one out of blast. There were no cold blast charcoal furnaces. There were four bloomeries, two forges, and no rolling mills<ref>Convention of Iron Masters 1850, 135</ref>.

Iron has been used since primitive times, when it was discovered that iron ore heated would turn into a material that could be reheated and hammered to make useful objects. (McVarish p. 259).While a charcoal kiln site can be identified by brick or stone artifacts, it is harder to identify a charcoal mounds because it was made of wood and dirt. (McVarish 263)

==Iron Communities==
Self-sufficient communities, called iron plantations, were built around these furnaces. Many workers were needed to run an iron plantation, including colliers, miners, woodcutters, molders, founders, patternmakers, and their helpers. In Pennsylvania, Hopewell Furnace employed roughly two hundred to two hundred fifty people during the nineteenth century. Workers at iron plantations would often bring their families along with them. Considering this, the community at Hopewell Furnace would have consisted of about six hundred people<ref>McVarish 2008, 259</ref>. The lands of iron plantations included housing, gristmills and sawmills, farming land, and vast amounts of woodland, as well as barns, company stores, spring-houses, blacksmiths, schools, churches, carpenter's shops, forges, casting houses, charcoal storage, and many other buildings<ref>McVarish 2008, 259</ref>. Iron production required over a hundred acres of woodlands per year<ref>Straka 2014, 105</ref>.

In the 18th and 19th centuries there would have been hundreds of iron furnaces, and each town most likely had a blacksmith and forge. (McVarish p. 259)
Charcoal mounds and kilns were located as close to the wood source as possible, since wood was heavier to move than the charcoal so they were not usually near roads, but were on the sides of hills. (McVarish, p. 263)
Ironmakers hammer or roll the wrought iron to fit the buyer's preference, which might include bars, rods or sheets. (McVarish, p. 278)

==Fuel==
Prior to the 1830s, every furnace in the US burned charcoal as fuel. Charcoal was used because it could be produced in large quantities, it burns hotter than wood, and it is almost pure carbon, so it reduces impurities in iron produced<ref>McVarish 2008, 260</ref>. To make charcoal, a variety of methods were used including hearths and kilns. Hearths were generally used in the pre-Civil War period and involved burning wood in earth-covered mounds. These hearths produced weak charcoal that would crumble easily<ref>McVarish 2008, 262</ref>. Charcoal kilns were made of brick and were more efficient. They also created more durable charcoal than hearths, which yielded charcoal that was more brittle<ref>McVarish 2008, 262</ref>. Kiln remains vary greatly. Smaller remains are usually those of farm kilns, which can be found at the base of hills with roads nearby, while larger remains oriented with a square stone base and occasional steel shells surrounding the base are commercial kilns, and usually placed near railroads. Commercial kiln locations can be found on historical maps from the nineteenth and early twentieth century<ref>McVarish 2008, 265</ref>. Around the 1860s, coal and coke began to replace charcoal in some areas<ref>McVarish 2008, 267</ref>; but overall, iron production increased so much that the use of charcoal continued to rise until 1890. The last charcoal-powered furnace in the United States was in blast until 1945<ref>Straka 2014, 104</ref>.
Charcoal pits produced weak charcoal that would easily crumble when it was put in the blast furnace, while charcoal kilns produced more durable charcoal (McVarish p. 262)

Prior to the advent of puddling furnaces coal was never a viable option for iron production because it would contaminate the metal with sulfur <ref>McVarish, 2008, 269</ref>.

==Operation==
Furnace efficiency varied within the industry; the type of ore, equipment used, region, charcoal quality, and furnace type contributed to this<ref>Straka 2014, 105</ref>. [[Ironworks]] had to be near water and sources of raw materials such as charcoal,
limestone, and iron ore<ref>McVarish 2008, 259</ref>. Colonial ironworks used a variety of techniques to produce iron.

===Bloomery===
A bloomery was a small operation that heated iron ore to refine and shape it, which produced wrought iron<ref>McVarish 2008, 259</ref>. Bloomeries needed simple equipment like a hearth, bellows, and tools for manipulating the iron. They had to simultaneously accomplish two tasks: reducing the iron oxides in the ore to metal, and also to separate the metal from the gangue in the ore<ref>McVarish 2008, 260</ref>. Bloomeries were common in colonial America, and operated between the seventeenth and twentieth centuries. Disadvantages of bloomeries included limited production, wasted heat, and an inability to completely separate the iron from slag<ref>McVarish 2008, 260</ref>.

Iron ore after it was heated became wrought iron, and the slabs of wrought iron were called blooms (McVarish p. 259).

===Blast Furnace===
Blast furnaces addressed many of the disadvantages of bloomeries, as blast furnaces could be run continuously for months at at time, conserved heat, and could produce much more iron. A blast furnace would have been constructed in a dry location that was not prone to flooding<ref>Overman 1854, 153</ref>. After establishing a location that fit this criteria, the ground would be excavated to ensure that it could support the weight of the stack<ref>Overman 1854, 153-154</ref>. The foundation for the furnace would be constructed so that an additional foot of foundation would extend past the base of the furnace in all directions<ref>Overman 1854, 154</ref>. Blast furnaces were vertical, hollow structures, the top of which would be loaded with ore, fuel, and flux. The bottom had air vents and a hole for the molten iron to run out. Blast furnaces tended to be constructed twenty-five to thirty feet high when they first came into use, and eventually grew to be thirty-two to forty feet high during the nineteenth century with a conical shape on top<ref>McVarish 2008, 262</ref>.

The blast furnaces had very thick stone walls with fire-resistant interior lining. A layer between the lining and outer stones — usually made of clay or smaller stones — provided better insulation and allowed the inner walls to expand slightly when heated<ref>McVarish 2008, 262</ref>. The outer wall was generally constructed of any stone, often granite, grauwach (a dark coarsegrained sedimentary stone), or slate<ref>McVarish 2008, 266</ref>. The inner walls of the furnace were essential to build adequately as it had to stand up to high heat over long periods of time. The hearths in the blast furnaces were typically constructed from sandstone<ref>Overman 1854, 183-184</ref>. Bellows, which pumped air into the furnace to feed the flames, were often powered by waterwheels, equal to about twenty horsepower. By adjusting ventilation, the temperature inside blast furnaces could be controlled to a degree. Blast furnaces were loaded from the top and therefore were often located along hillsides. When the molten iron was ready to be collected, or tapped, a smaller hole at the top was opened to allow the liquid slag, which sat on top of the iron because it was lighter, to be drawn away. After the slag was collected, the main plug was pulled, and the molten iron ran into sand molds. The iron produced in blast furnaces is called pig iron because the final product resembles piglets suckling on their mother. After the iron ran into the molds and was cooled, the "pigs" were broken off the "sows." These smaller pieces were more valuable than the metal in the runners which would need to be remelted<ref>McVarish 2008, 265</ref>. In Pennsylvania, furnaces made roughly ten to twenty-five tons of pig iron or castings per week, with the latter amount rarely being attained<ref>Swank 1884, 35</ref>. By the nineteenth century, the reduction of iron took place almost exclusively in blast furnaces.
A blast furnace was filled with three materials, iron ore, charcoal and limestone. Iron ore could be found in bogs and deposits near the ground. (McVarish, p. 260)By the early 20th century, iron furnaces started using coke and coal instead of charcoal. (McVarish, p. 267)

==The Fining Process==
The Fining Process was brought to the United States in the seventeenth-century. Finer workers would melt pig iron and allow the carbon to oxidize. The iron gathered into a mass called a loup and was then hammered until the slag was removed<ref>McVarish 2008, 268</ref>.

===Walloon Process===
The Walloon Process was the original fining technique. The Walloon Process involved pushing a pig of iron into a hearth full of charcoal at a downward angle to melt it, working it into a loup, and hammering it to expel slag. The melted metal was then collected from the bottom of the hearth and brought it into the air blast<ref>McVarish, 2008, 268</ref>. From here the finer kept the metal in the air blast until they were convince dthat all the silicon and carbon had already oxidized <ref>McVarish, 2008, 268</ref>. It was after the oxidation that the metal was worked into a loup and then hammered to remove the slag<ref>McVarish, 2008, 268</ref>. Occasionally the loup was reheated during the hammering process<ref>McVarish, 2008, 268</ref>. The Walloon Process required a lot of air to heat the flames and the quality of wrought iron produced was heavily dependent on the skill of the workers making it<ref>McVarish, 2008, 268</ref>.

===Lancashire (Charcoal Hearth) Process===
The Lancashire Process, which was developed in Sweden, involved moving the pig iron through the hottest part of a flame to burn off impurities and allowing the melted iron to accumulate at the bottom. Workers would then lift the iron, cut into it, and force slag in to oxidize what impurities remained. The iron was then broken up, remelted, and formed into a loup via hammering. The Lancashire Process reused heat from the flames to preheat air being pumped in by the bellows, making it more heat-efficient than the Walloon Process<ref>McVarish 2008, 268-269</ref>.

In the United States this process was referred to as the "Charcoal Hearth Process"<ref>McVarish, 2008, 268</ref>. The firing hearth stood at about 4 feet tall and was comprised of water-cooled cast-iron pipes<ref>McVarish, 2008, 268</ref>. This method of iron production made purer iron than that of the Walloon process as the iron from the Lancashire process contained less carbon and slag <ref>McVarish, 2008, 268</ref>.

===Puddling===
Puddling was a larger scale way to produce wrought iron than a finery that was able to use mineral coals instead of charcoal. To prevent impurities from the coal from contaminating the iron, puddling placed the coal in an adjacent chamber to the iron, where most of the heat reached the iron by reflecting off the ceiling. This is where the name "puddling" comes from<ref>McVarish 2008, 269</ref>. Puddlers could handle three times as much iron as a finer, up to six hundred pounds at a time. Workers would push any solidifying clumps of iron under the surface of the molten mix so they would not oxidize. After most of the impurities had oxidized, a worker would split the iron into three lumps, which would be pressed by a machine called a squeezer to remove the remaining liquid slag<ref>McVarish 2008, 270</ref>. The bosh of the furnace was typically constructed from soapstone in Pennsylvania<ref> Overman 1854, 273</ref>.

===Forging===
Forging produced wrought iron using blooms and rods by effectively hammering. Large hammers between fifty and four hundred pounds could be used; lighter hammers typically produced smaller things. Forging hammers were automated by waterwheel or steam power, and could strike up to two hundred and fifty times per minute<ref>McVarish 2008, 271</ref>.

A finer would burn about 2 to 3 pounds of charcoal for every pound of iron made. (McVarish, p. 268)

==The Furnace==
The upper portion of the furnace was conical in shape. The walls had an inner and outer layer; the outer was usually made of granite or slate, while the inner was usually made of sandstone or firebrick because of these substances' durability to withstand high temperatures<ref>McVarish 2008, 266</ref>. Between the two walls was an eight-inch space filled with stone chips or broken cinder-blocks. This space allowed the inner wall to expand and contract comfortably without bursting the outer wall. The area where workers would empty wheelbarrows full of iron ore was called the "trunnel head" or "throat." The opening above the hearth of the shaft below the trunnel head was called the bosh, which supported the furnace burden while funneling the molten slag<ref>McVarish 2008, 266</ref>. The taper of the shaft, bosh, and crucible was entirely dependent on the type of ore smelted, charcoal quality, and what quality of iron was desired as the finished product. In the United States, a straight, uniform forty to fifty foot stack was needed when hydrates and oxides of iron were smelted. Heat-exchanges, or hot blast stoves, were installed in the nineteenth century to increase efficiency. By the early twentieth century, the iron furnaces were forced to change due to the moving times. They grew to be about eighty feet tall; the shape and proportion of the hearth and bosh and the addition of a bellhopper to the trunnel head allowed for the use of new materials<ref>McVarish 2008, 267</ref>.
As coke-burning furnaces were built, the demand for charcoal declined. There were approximately 500 in the 1860s, but by 1900 there were less than 50. (McVarish p. 263)

==Workers==
There were several different positions that could be held within the iron works. The [[Lives of Workers]] varied as working at the furnace required people of numerous skill sets, resulting in different pay levels and hours worked<ref>Walker 1966, 229</ref>. The furnaces needed managers, clerks, molders, teamsters<ref>Walker 1966, 231</ref>, blacksmiths<ref>Walker 1966, 237</ref>, woodcutters<ref>Walker 1966, 238</ref>, colliers involved in [[charcoal production]], ironmasters<ref>Walker 1966, 248</ref>, and fillers<ref>Walker 1966, 235</ref>. Furnaces also required founders, who supervised the actual operation of the foundry. Founders typically made their way up the ranks to founder by beginning as a laborer, becoming a helper, then a keeper (assistant to the founder), and finally a founder<ref>Walker 1966, 232</ref>.

==Notes==
<references />

==References==
*Convention of Iron Masters. 1850. Documents Relating to the Manufacture of Iron in Pennsylvania. Philadelphia: General Committee. https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/000958393.

*McVarish, Douglas C. 2008. ''American Industrial Archaeology: A Field Guide.'' Walnut Creek, Calif.: Left Coast Press, Inc.

* Straka, T. J. 2014. ''Historic Charcoal Production in the US and Forest Depletion: Development of Production Parameters.'' Advances in Historical Studies, 3, 104-114. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ahs.2014.32010

* Swank, J. Moore. 1878. ''Introduction to a History of Ironmaking and Coal Mining in Pennsylvania.'' Philadelphia: Pub. by the author. https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc2.ark:/13960/t1ng4hm2j&view=2up&seq=40

** Walker, Joseph E. 1966. ''Hopewell Village; a Social and Economic History of an Iron-Making Community.'' Philadelphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press.

Iron production

2020-09-30T13:27:14Z

Jakob.kidd: /* Bloomery */

Iron production converts iron ore into pig iron through a process known as [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smelting smelting]. Early on in the history of iron production in the United States, most furnaces used charcoal as fuel; so [[charcoal production]] and iron production were often closely linked. In fact Charcoal was the only fuel for iron production until the 1830s when the industry began a slow
transition toward the use coal as fuel<ref>Straka 2014, 104</ref>. Ironworks were some of the first and most enduring examples of industry in the United States. Remnants of ironworks can still be found, especially in rural parts of the country<ref>McVarish 2008, 259</ref>.

==History==
In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, small-scale metalworking operations produced everyday objects, such as kitchenware, toys, building materials, and tools<ref>McVarish 2008, 259</ref>. During wartime, cannons and other military weaponry were cast at furnaces<ref>Swank 1884, 35</ref>. Iron plantations were typically in rural communities and often included forges, housing for workers, woodlands for charcoal production, and a sawmill<ref>McVarish 2008, 259</ref>. Bloomeries were early centers of limited iron production. In a bloomery, the iron oxides in ore were reduced to metal and were then separated from the gangue in the ore. The fire created liquid slag and burning charcoal produced carbon dioxide, which reduced the oxide to metallic iron<ref>McVarish 2008, 260</ref>. Blast furnaces were also used for larger-scale iron production. These furnaces could be twenty to thirty feet in height and had hollow centers into which were placed ore, fuel, and flux<ref>McVarish 2008, 260</ref>. Bellows were powered by a water wheel, and melted iron and liquid slag accumulated in the bottom of the furnace<ref>McVarish 2008, 260</ref>. By the nineteenth century, blast furnaces were the most commonly used type of furnace<ref>McVarish 2008, 266</ref>.

Late in the nineteenth century, the Lehigh Valley was second only to Pittsburgh, PA in the yearly value of iron products in the iron districts of the entire country and was ranked first in pig iron districts<ref>Swank 1884, 34</ref>. The Lehigh Valley had fifty anthracite coal furnaces, of which the Bethlehem Iron Company owned six<ref>Swank 1884, 34</ref>.

In 1850 all of the ironworks in Eastern Pennsylvania were accounted for. In Lehigh County there were six anthracite blast furnaces that were in blast and one that was out of blast. There was one hot blast charcoal furnace that was out of blast and one cold blast charcoal furnace that was out of blast. There were no forges and no rolling mills. In Carbon County there was one anthracite blast furnace in blast and one not in blast. There was one hot blast charcoal furnace in blast and one out of blast. There were no cold blast charcoal furnaces. There were four bloomeries, two forges, and no rolling mills<ref>Convention of Iron Masters 1850, 135</ref>.

==Iron Communities==
Self-sufficient communities, called iron plantations, were built around these furnaces. Many workers were needed to run an iron plantation, including colliers, miners, woodcutters, molders, founders, patternmakers, and their helpers. In Pennsylvania, Hopewell Furnace employed roughly two hundred to two hundred fifty people during the nineteenth century. Workers at iron plantations would often bring their families along with them. Considering this, the community at Hopewell Furnace would have consisted of about six hundred people<ref>McVarish 2008, 259</ref>. The lands of iron plantations included housing, gristmills and sawmills, farming land, and vast amounts of woodland, as well as barns, company stores, spring-houses, blacksmiths, schools, churches, carpenter's shops, forges, casting houses, charcoal storage, and many other buildings<ref>McVarish 2008, 259</ref>. Iron production required over a hundred acres of woodlands per year<ref>Straka 2014, 105</ref>.

==Fuel==
Prior to the 1830s, every furnace in the US burned charcoal as fuel. Charcoal was used because it could be produced in large quantities, it burns hotter than wood, and it is almost pure carbon, so it reduces impurities in iron produced<ref>McVarish 2008, 260</ref>. To make charcoal, a variety of methods were used including hearths and kilns. Hearths were generally used in the pre-Civil War period and involved burning wood in earth-covered mounds. Charcoal kilns were made of brick and were more efficient. They also created more durable charcoal than hearths, which yielded charcoal that was more brittle<ref>McVarish 2008, 262</ref>. Kiln remains vary greatly. Smaller remains are usually those of farm kilns, which can be found at the base of hills with roads nearby, while larger remains oriented with a square stone base and occasional steel shells surrounding the base are commercial kilns, and usually placed near railroads. Commercial kiln locations can be found on historical maps from the nineteenth and early twentieth century<ref>McVarish 2008, 265</ref>. Around the 1860s, coal and coke began to replace charcoal in some areas<ref>McVarish 2008, 267</ref>; but overall, iron production increased so much that the use of charcoal continued to rise until 1890. The last charcoal-powered furnace in the United States was in blast until 1945<ref>Straka 2014, 104</ref>.

==Operation==
Furnace efficiency varied within the industry; the type of ore, equipment used, region, charcoal quality, and furnace type contributed to this<ref>Straka 2014, 105</ref>. [[Ironworks]] had to be near water and sources of raw materials such as charcoal,
limestone, and iron ore<ref>McVarish 2008, 259</ref>. Colonial ironworks used a variety of techniques to produce iron.

===Bloomery===
A bloomery was a small operation that heated iron ore to refine and shape it, which produced wrought iron<ref>McVarish 2008, 259</ref>. Bloomeries needed simple equipment like a hearth, bellows, and tools for manipulating the iron. They had to simultaneously accomplish two tasks: reducing the iron oxides in the ore to metal, and also to separate the metal from the gangue in the ore<ref>McVarish 2008, 260</ref>. Bloomeries were common in colonial America, and operated between the seventeenth and twentieth centuries. Disadvantages of bloomeries included limited production, wasted heat, and an inability to completely separate the iron from slag<ref>McVarish 2008, 260</ref>.

===Blast Furnace===
Blast furnaces addressed many of the disadvantages of bloomeries, as blast furnaces could be run continuously for months at at time, conserved heat, and could produce much more iron. A blast furnace would have been constructed in a dry location that was not prone to flooding<ref>Overman 1854, 153</ref>. After establishing a location that fit this criteria, the ground would be excavated to ensure that it could support the weight of the stack<ref>Overman 1854, 153-154</ref>. The foundation for the furnace would be constructed so that an additional foot of foundation would extend past the base of the furnace in all directions<ref>Overman 1854, 154</ref>. Blast furnaces were vertical, hollow structures, the top of which would be loaded with ore, fuel, and flux. The bottom had air vents and a hole for the molten iron to run out. Blast furnaces tended to be constructed twenty-five to thirty feet high when they first came into use, and eventually grew to be thirty-two to forty feet high during the nineteenth century<ref>McVarish 2008, 262</ref>.

The blast furnaces had very thick stone walls with fire-resistant interior lining. A layer between the lining and outer stones — usually made of clay or smaller stones — provided better insulation and allowed the inner walls to expand slightly when heated<ref>McVarish 2008, 262</ref>. The hearths in the blast furnaces were typically constructed from sandstone<ref>Overman 1854, 183-184</ref>. Bellows, which pumped air into the furnace to feed the flames, were often powered by waterwheels, equal to about twenty horsepower. By adjusting ventilation, the temperature inside blast furnaces could be controlled to a degree. Blast furnaces were loaded from the top and therefore were often located along hillsides. When the molten iron was ready to be collected, or tapped, a smaller hole at the top was opened to allow the liquid slag, which sat on top of the iron because it was lighter, to be drawn away. After the slag was collected, the main plug was pulled, and the molten iron ran into sand molds. The iron produced in blast furnaces is called pig iron because the final product resembles piglets suckling on their mother. After the iron ran into the molds and was cooled, the "pigs" were broken off the "sows." These smaller pieces were more valuable than the metal in the runners which would need to be remelted<ref>McVarish 2008, 265</ref>. In Pennsylvania, furnaces made roughly ten to twenty-five tons of pig iron or castings per week, with the latter amount rarely being attained<ref>Swank 1884, 35</ref>.

==The Fining Process==
The Fining Process was brought to the United States in the seventeenth-century. Finer workers would melt pig iron and allow the carbon to oxidize. The iron gathered into a mass called a loup and was then hammered until the slag was removed<ref>McVarish 2008, 268</ref>.

===Walloon Process===
The Walloon Process was the original fining technique. The Walloon Process involved pushing a pig of iron into a hearth full of charcoal at a downward angle to melt it, working it into a loup, and hammering it to expel slag. The Walloon Process required a lot of air to heat the flames and the quality of wrought iron produced was heavily dependent on the skill of the workers making it<ref>McVarish, 2008, 268</ref>.

===Lancashire (Charcoal Hearth) Process===
The Lancashire Process, which was developed in Sweden, involved moving the pig iron through the hottest part of a flame to burn off impurities and allowing the melted iron to accumulate at the bottom. Workers would then lift the iron, cut into it, and force slag in to oxidize what impurities remained. The iron was then broken up, remelted, and formed into a loup via hammering. The Lancashire Process reused heat from the flames to preheat air being pumped in by the bellows, making it more heat-efficient than the Walloon Process<ref>McVarish 2008, 268-269</ref>.

===Puddling===
Puddling was a larger scale way to produce wrought iron than a finery that was able to use mineral coals instead of charcoal. To prevent impurities from the coal from contaminating the iron, puddling placed the coal in an adjacent chamber to the iron, where most of the heat reached the iron by reflecting off the ceiling. This is where the name "puddling" comes from<ref>McVarish 2008, 269</ref>. Puddlers could handle three times as much iron as a finer, up to six hundred pounds at a time. Workers would push any solidifying clumps of iron under the surface of the molten mix so they would not oxidize. After most of the impurities had oxidized, a worker would split the iron into three lumps, which would be pressed by a machine called a squeezer to remove the remaining liquid slag<ref>McVarish 2008, 270</ref>. The bosh of the furnace was typically constructed from soapstone in Pennsylvania<ref> Overman 1854, 273</ref>.

===Forging===
Forging produced wrought iron using blooms and rods. Forging is effectively hammering. Large hammers between fifty and four hundred pounds could be used; lighter hammers typically produced smaller things. Forging hammers were automated by waterwheel or steam power, and could strike up to two hundred and fifty times per minute<ref>McVarish 2008, 271</ref>.

==The Furnace==
The upper portion of the furnace was conical in shape. The walls had an inner and outer layer; the outer was usually made of granite or slate, while the inner was usually made of sandstone or firebrick because of these substances' durability to withstand high temperatures<ref>McVarish 2008, 266</ref>. Between the two walls was an eight-inch space filled with stone chips or broken cinder-blocks. This space allowed the inner wall to expand and contract comfortably without bursting the outer wall. The area where workers would empty wheelbarrows full of iron ore was called the "trunnel head" or "throat." The opening above the hearth of the shaft below the trunnel head was called the bosh, which supported the furnace burden while funneling the molten slag<ref>McVarish 2008, 266</ref>. The taper of the shaft, bosh, and crucible was entirely dependent on the type of ore smelted, charcoal quality, and what quality of iron was desired as the finished product. In the United States, a straight, uniform forty to fifty foot stack was needed when hydrates and oxides of iron were smelted. Heat-exchanges, or hot blast stoves, were installed in the nineteenth century to increase efficiency. By the early twentieth century, the iron furnaces were forced to change due to the moving times. They grew to be about eighty feet tall; the shape and proportion of the hearth and bosh and the addition of a bellhopper to the trunnel head allowed for the use of new materials<ref>McVarish 2008, 267</ref>.

==Workers==
There were several different positions that could be held within the iron works. The [[lives of workers]] varied as working at the furnace required people of numerous skill sets, resulting in different pay levels and hours worked<ref>Walker 1966, 229</ref>. The furnaces needed managers, clerks, molders, teamsters<ref>Walker 1966, 231</ref>, blacksmiths<ref>Walker 1966, 237</ref>, woodcutters<ref>Walker 1966, 238</ref>, colliers involved in [[charcoal production]], ironmasters<ref>Walker 1966, 248</ref>, and fillers<ref>Walker 1966, 235</ref>. Furnaces also required founders, who supervised the actual operation of the foundry. Founders typically made their way up the ranks to founder by beginning as a laborer, becoming a helper, then a keeper (assistant to the founder), and finally a founder<ref>Walker 1966, 232</ref>.

==Notes==
<references />

==References==
*Convention of Iron Masters. 1850. Documents Relating to the Manufacture of Iron in Pennsylvania. Philadelphia: General Committee. https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/000958393.

*McVarish, Douglas C. 2008. ''American Industrial Archaeology: A Field Guide.'' Walnut Creek, Calif.: Left Coast Press, Inc.

* Straka, T. J. 2014. ''Historic Charcoal Production in the US and Forest Depletion: Development of Production Parameters.'' Advances in Historical Studies, 3, 104-114. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ahs.2014.32010

* Swank, J. Moore. 1878. ''Introduction to a History of Ironmaking and Coal Mining in Pennsylvania.'' Philadelphia: Pub. by the author. https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc2.ark:/13960/t1ng4hm2j&view=2up&seq=40

** Walker, Joseph E. 1966. ''Hopewell Village; a Social and Economic History of an Iron-Making Community.'' Philadelphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press.

Harvesting Wood

2020-09-27T22:13:16Z

Jakob.kidd: /* Wood */

==Wood==
Charcoal production involved extensive woodcutting over broad forest areas, often times whole forests were depleted. Wood must be dry before it could be used for [[charcoal production]] and [[iron production]]. Wood cut in the late autumn and early winter proved to hold the least amount of water. For example, wood cut in April would typically contain 10 to 20 percent more water than wood that was cut in January. Wood cut in December and January was more solid and would dry faster<ref>Overman 1854, 80</ref>. Dead of decayed wood was of no use for making charcoal<ref>Overman 1854, 83</ref>.

In 1878, 4 cords worth of charcoal proved to provide 1 ton of pig iron <ref>Straka 2010, 60</ref>. Places like Hopewell Furnace would use a 30 year cutting cycle which meant they had to use way more land so that the cut trees had plenty of time to regrow. Around 200 acres would be cut annually at Hopewell and 147,000 acres or 230 square miles of forest were harvested annually nationwide which led to obvious cases of forest depletion. In response to the depletion, furnaces and their employees because very strong supporters of forestry early on because of their need for forests to continue supplying wood <ref>Straka 2010, 60</ref>

The kind of wood has a major impact on the quality of charcoal. Denser types of woods were preferred to soft woods as they produced more heat and were less friable<ref>Straka 2015, 106</ref>. It has been recorded that sometimes a mixture of soft and hard woods would be used to create charcoal<ref>Straka 2014, 106</ref>. Even the ground condition for the pit plays a role in the carbonization of wood. A perfectly level ground, free from any draft that is dry and solid is optimal charcoal production <ref>Straka 2010, 107</ref>. It was also important that the wood being harvested was in good condition, this meant no decaying, knotted or defects in the wood<ref>Straka 2014, 106-107</ref>. The season in which the wood is gathered and burned is also very important. Charcoal is usually made in the late summer early fall so that the wood from the previous season has time to dry out <ref>Straka 2010, 107</ref>. Even the condition in which the wood is burning can play a part in the quality of charcoal produced. Things like temperature and wind speed can effect the time it takes for a piece of wood to carbonize <ref>Straka 2010, 107</ref>. Optimal size for commercial charcoal is about 25 to 80 mm across the grain<ref>Svedelius 1875</ref>. Most, if not all species of wood can be carbonized to make charcoal.

==Woodcutters==
A cord of wood is four foot lengths of wood stacked four feet high and eight feet long. Woodcutters could cut anywhere from a few cords to more than one thousand cords. Many woodcutters were farmers who supplemented their income in the offseason<ref>Walker 1966, 238</ref>. For example, between 1851-1853 Edwin Gault was paid for 1993.5 cords<ref>Walker 1966, 238</ref>. One must remember, however, that he may have had helpers whom he then paid. Colliers also became woodcutters during the winter months in order to get a full-years wage<ref>Kemper 1941, 10</ref>. Payments for cutting wood varied greatly due to location and time<ref>Overman 1854, 84</ref>.

Wood cutters comprised a large proportion of the workers at any charcoal iron furnace. At Hopewell Furnace between 1851-1853, 225 persons were paid for any type of work and 116 were paid for cutting cord wood<ref>Walker 1966, 239</ref>. At Hopewell, on average approximately two cords of wood could be chopped down in a single day<ref>Walker 1966, 239</ref>. Two and a half cords was the average at Hanging Rock District<ref>Crandall 1906, 20</ref>. It was noted, however, that in the Hanging Rock District there worked "...Reuben Beverly, who was reputed to be the champion chopper of this region and who, it is said, could cut, split and rank eight cords per day indefinitely. His name was as familiar throughout the Hanging Rock field as was that of the lad who cut down the cherry tree"<ref>Crandall 1906, 20</ref>. Crandall also indicated that he personally had "known many expert wood choppers who could chop, split and rank from four to five cords a day"<ref>Crandall 1906, 20</ref>.

Woodcutters sometimes delivered the wood to charcoal hearths, called "delivering in the ring". They were paid $1.75 for this wood<ref>Walker 1966, 239</ref>.

==Deforestation==
Charcoal production created a huge impact on forest depletion. Forest destruction tended to be complete near smelters and furnaces, it was generally localized near the demand for the fuel.<ref>Straka 2014, 105</ref>. The average annual furnace output was 1000 tons of pig iron. Thus, an average iron plantation furnace would require fuel from 150 acres of woodland per year. <ref>Straka 2014, 105</ref>.The woodland area surrounding the furnace was extremely important to feeding the charcoal furnace. <ref>Straka 2014, 110</ref>. Because of the consistent use for the furnaces, regeneration and growth were so slow that wood supplies would likely be depleted after a decade or so of woodcutting<ref>Straka 2014, 111</ref>. The furnaces acknowledged the slow regeneration of wood and as a result many furnaces practiced various forms of conservation and land management as a way of maintaining their source of fuel<ref>Straka 2014, 106</ref>. Over time iron production became increasingly efficient, ergo more acres of woodland were required to fuel production<ref>Straka 2014, 106</ref>. Woodlands in the east were typically more plentiful than that in the western United States and they typically took less time to regenerate<ref>Straka 2014, 111</ref>. Calculations of woodland required for production varied based on factors such as location, furnace productivity (pit or kiln), and forest regeneration<ref>Straka 2014, 110-111</ref>. Eastern woodlands typically supplied more wood per acre and regenerated more quickly than their western counterparts<ref>Straka 2014, 111</ref>.

==Notes==
<references />

==References==
* Crandall, Elias. 1906. ''Reminiscences of the Hanging Rock District (Concluded).'' The Iron Trade Review, July, 19.

* Kemper, Jackson. 1941. ''American Charcoal Making in the Era of the Cold-Blast Furnace.'' History 14. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of the Interior; National Park Service.

*Overman, Frederick. 1854. ''The Manufacture of Iron, in all its Various Branches'' (3rd ed.). Philadelphia: Baird. https://www.google.com/books/edition/the_manufacture_of_iron_in_all_its_vario/Gani2eHvhAkC?hl=en&gbpv=1

*Straka, Thomas J. 2014. “Historic Charcoal Production in the US and Forest Depletion: Development of Production Parameters .” Scientific Research Publishing Inc.: 105. https://muhlenbergcollege.instructure.com/courses/14963/files/836339/download?wrap=1

*Straka, Thomas J., and Wayne C. Ramer. 2010. “History on the Road: Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site.” Forest History Today Spring/Fall: 58–62. https://foresthistory.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/2010_History-on-Road.pdf

*Svedelius, G. (1875). Hand-Book for Charcoal Burners. New York: John Wiley & Son

* Walker, Joseph E. 1966. ''Hopewell Village; a Social and Economic History of an Iron-Making Community.'' Philadelphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press.

Field Work 2018

2020-09-22T20:40:37Z

Jakob.kidd: /* Fieldwork */

=Purpose of the work=
In the fall of 2018, the Muhlenberg Field Archaeology class studied the Blue Mountain land that was used for charcoal and iron production. The class conducted some surveys and a small excavation of a colliers hut, utilizing several different methods including examination of LiDAR maps, pedestrian survey, shovel test pits, and metal detecting.

Possible charcoal pits were identified using LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) (Carter and Backenstoss 2017, Carter 2019a, 2019b). On LiDAR data, the charcoal pits appear as flattened ovals on sloped terrain due to the clearing and leveling of the site in order to make charcoal.

The purpose of this research was to introduce students to survey methods and orient them to the landscape. The second was to investigate the three collier’s huts on the side of the mountain through excavation. Through the field work, four new collier’s huts were identified in the field and three more potential ones were noted. The confirmed identification of four more collier’s huts however, increases the total confirmed huts to eleven.

=Plan=
The plan of field work was to utilize several different methods of examination including the use of LiDAR maps, pedestrian survey, shovel test pits, and metal detecting <ref>Carter 2019, 31</ref>.
=Fieldwork=

On the first day, an area was identified which served as a good space to conduct a systematic survey. Unfortunately this did not happen because upon arrival it was discovered that the area hadn't been cut for quite some time resulting in impenetrable growth. Due to this, a trip was taken to some hearths in the surrounding area that were identified on the LiDAR but had not yet been looked at in person <ref>Carter 2019, 36</ref>.

On the second day (9/23/2018), we headed for collier huts 6, 13 and 14 and associated charcoal hearths (1292). Dr. Carter had discovered collier’s hut #6 when confirming charcoal hearths in the surrounding area on 6/29/2018. However, on 9/19/2018, Kenney and Dr.Carter spent 1⁄2 day on the mountain. The goal was to set up the high resolution GPS. While doing this, however, it was discovered that not only was there one single collier’s hut (#6), but a total of three (the other two are #13 and #14). To have three collier’s huts in such close proximity to each other is unusual. This is also unusual because all other collier’s huts have been located on the flat top of the mountain, not on the slope, like 6, 13 and 14 <ref>Carter 2019, 37</ref>.

=Results=

==Notes==
<references />
==References==
*Carter, Benjamin. 2019. ''Charcoal Lands: A report on archaeological investigations in State Games Lands #217 Fall 2018.'' Allentown, PA: Muhlenberg College.