Iron Allentown Wiki - User contributions [en]

The Balliet Family

2018-10-01T17:43:41Z

Michaelaf: Created page with "This page gives context to the activities of Paul, Aaron, and Stephen Balliet's iron-producing activities in the mid 1800s. Paulus Balliet was one of the oldest settler in th..."

This page gives context to the activities of Paul, Aaron, and Stephen Balliet's iron-producing activities in the mid 1800s.

Paulus Balliet was one of the oldest settler in the Lehigh Valley. Unlike most early settlers who were Swiss or German, Paulus was born in Alsace in 1717 and emigrated to America on the ship "Robert Oliver" in 1738. He applied for an received 97 acres of land and founded the Balliet Farm on April 12, 1759. Later, he acquired 131 acres of land between 1749 and 1774. He was married to Maria Magdalena Wortring who was from Lorraine, France.

Paulus gained the nickname of "Bowl" Balliet which he reportedly received from Native Americans because that was what he used to distribute food to them (511). Despite this idyllic story, he fought with Native Americans and armed militias against them (519).

Aaron Balliet (1813-1895)

2018-10-01T17:18:35Z

Michaelaf:

Aaron Balliet (FamilySearch.org [https://www.familysearch.org/tree/person/details/LHJ3-LWT LHJ3-LWT]) was born in North Whitehall Township on March 7, 1813 <ref> Roberts et al. 1914: 48 </ref> to [[Stephen Balliet (1781-1854)]] and Susan Ibrie. <ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884, 505.</ref> He was educated in North Whitehall Township <ref>Roberts et al. 1914: 48</ref>. [[The Balliet Family]] came to Pennsylvania when Paulus Balliet emigrated from Alsace and landed in America in 1736 <ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884, 510-511.</ref>. In 1845, Aaron married Sarah Dengler and had 8 children, 6 of which survived to adulthood. He remarried in 1867 to Catherine Housman. He held local posts such as justice of the peace and school director and also was an active member of the German Reformed Church of Unionville. <ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884, 505.</ref>

Aaron Balliet along with his brother in-law [[Benjamin Levan (1806-1886)]] and father built and operated the Coplay iron furnaces <ref>Roberts et al. 1914: 48</ref>. They formed Stephen Balliet & Co. in the summer of 1853 and started out with 12 acres of land on the West bank of Coplay Creek. The same year the land was acquired, the base of the furnace was finished along with houses for workers. By 1854,the stack of the furnace was built. In 1854, Stephen Balliet Sr. died and the company admitted new partners and became the Lehigh Valley Iron Company which consisted of 40 corporations and was worth $200,000.<ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 502.</ref>

Aaron also took over the [[East Penn Furnace]] from his father from 1838-1855. This furnace was built by Stephen Balliet and Samuel Helffrich on land east of the mountain in the East Penn township. <ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884, 722.</ref>

Aaron managed mines with his brothers, Paul and John Balliet. Their mines were extremely prosperous, especially during wartime when they produced $35,000 worth of material in one year. <ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884, 523.</ref>

==References==
Mathews, Alfred, and Austin N Hungerford. 1884. History of the Counties of Lehigh and Carbon, in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. Philadelphia: Everts & Richards. https://books.google.com/books?id=pSBEAQAAMAAJ&dq=mathews%20hungerford%20lehigh&pg=PR3#v=snippet&q=Aaron%20Balliet&f=false.

Roberts, Charles Rhoads, John Baer Stoudt, Thomas H. Krick, and William J. Dietrich. 1914. History of Lehigh County, Pennsylvania, and a Genealogical and Biographical Record of Its Families. Allentown, Pa.: Lehigh Valley publishing Company, Limited. https://books.google.com/books?id=mzQPAQAAMAAJ&dq=lehigh%20furnace&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false.

Aaron Balliet (1813-1895)

2018-10-01T17:18:05Z

Michaelaf:

Aaron Balliet (FamilySearch.org [https://www.familysearch.org/tree/person/details/LHJ3-LWT LHJ3-LWT]) was born in North Whitehall Township on March 7, 1813 <ref> Roberts et al. 1914: 48 </ref> to [[Stephen Balliet (1781-1854)]] and Susan Ibrie. <ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884, 505.</ref> He was educated in North Whitehall Township <ref>Roberts et al. 1914: 48</ref>. [[The Balliet family]] came to Pennsylvania when Paulus Balliet emigrated from Alsace and landed in America in 1736 <ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884, 510-511.</ref>. In 1845, Aaron married Sarah Dengler and had 8 children, 6 of which survived to adulthood. He remarried in 1867 to Catherine Housman. He held local posts such as justice of the peace and school director and also was an active member of the German Reformed Church of Unionville. <ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884, 505.</ref>

Aaron Balliet along with his brother in-law [[Benjamin Levan (1806-1886)]] and father built and operated the Coplay iron furnaces <ref>Roberts et al. 1914: 48</ref>. They formed Stephen Balliet & Co. in the summer of 1853 and started out with 12 acres of land on the West bank of Coplay Creek. The same year the land was acquired, the base of the furnace was finished along with houses for workers. By 1854,the stack of the furnace was built. In 1854, Stephen Balliet Sr. died and the company admitted new partners and became the Lehigh Valley Iron Company which consisted of 40 corporations and was worth $200,000.<ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 502.</ref>

Aaron also took over the Penn Furnace from his father from 1838-1855. This forge was built by Stephen Balliet and Samuel Helffrich on land east of the mountain in the East Penn township. <ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884, 722.</ref>

Aaron managed mines with his brothers, Paul and John Balliet. Their mines were extremely prosperous, especially during wartime when they produced $35,000 worth of material in one year. <ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884, 523.</ref>

==References==
Mathews, Alfred, and Austin N Hungerford. 1884. History of the Counties of Lehigh and Carbon, in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. Philadelphia: Everts & Richards. https://books.google.com/books?id=pSBEAQAAMAAJ&dq=mathews%20hungerford%20lehigh&pg=PR3#v=snippet&q=Aaron%20Balliet&f=false.

Roberts, Charles Rhoads, John Baer Stoudt, Thomas H. Krick, and William J. Dietrich. 1914. History of Lehigh County, Pennsylvania, and a Genealogical and Biographical Record of Its Families. Allentown, Pa.: Lehigh Valley publishing Company, Limited. https://books.google.com/books?id=mzQPAQAAMAAJ&dq=lehigh%20furnace&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false.

Aaron Balliet (1813-1895)

2018-10-01T17:14:42Z

Michaelaf:

Aaron Balliet (FamilySearch.org [https://www.familysearch.org/tree/person/details/LHJ3-LWT LHJ3-LWT]) was born in North Whitehall Township on March 7, 1813 <ref> Roberts et al. 1914: 48 </ref> to [[Stephen Balliet (1781-1854)]] and Susan Ibrie. <ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884, 505.</ref> He was educated in North Whitehall Township <ref>Roberts et al. 1914: 48</ref>. Aaron Balliet was descended from Paulus Balliet who emigrated from Alsace and landed in America in 1736 <ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884, 510-511.</ref>. In 1845, Aaron married Sarah Dengler and had 8 children, 6 of which survived to adulthood. He remarried in 1867 to Catherine Housman. He held local posts such as justice of the peace and school director and also was an active member of the German Reformed Church of Unionville. <ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884, 505.</ref>

Aaron Balliet along with his brother in-law [[Benjamin Levan (1806-1886)]] and father built and operated the Coplay iron furnaces <ref>Roberts et al. 1914: 48</ref>. They formed Stephen Balliet & Co. in the summer of 1853 and started out with 12 acres of land on the West bank of Coplay Creek. The same year the land was acquired, the base of the furnace was finished along with houses for workers. By 1854,the stack of the furnace was built. In 1854, Stephen Balliet Sr. died and the company admitted new partners and became the Lehigh Valley Iron Company which consisted of 40 corporations and was worth $200,000.<ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 502.</ref>

Aaron also took over the Penn Furnace from his father from 1838-1855. This forge was built by Stephen Balliet and Samuel Helffrich on land east of the mountain in the East Penn township. <ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884, 722.</ref>

Aaron managed mines with his brothers, Paul and John Balliet. Their mines were extremely prosperous, especially during wartime when they produced $35,000 worth of material in one year. <ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884, 523.</ref>

==References==
Mathews, Alfred, and Austin N Hungerford. 1884. History of the Counties of Lehigh and Carbon, in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. Philadelphia: Everts & Richards. https://books.google.com/books?id=pSBEAQAAMAAJ&dq=mathews%20hungerford%20lehigh&pg=PR3#v=snippet&q=Aaron%20Balliet&f=false.

Roberts, Charles Rhoads, John Baer Stoudt, Thomas H. Krick, and William J. Dietrich. 1914. History of Lehigh County, Pennsylvania, and a Genealogical and Biographical Record of Its Families. Allentown, Pa.: Lehigh Valley publishing Company, Limited. https://books.google.com/books?id=mzQPAQAAMAAJ&dq=lehigh%20furnace&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false.

Aaron Balliet (1813-1895)

2018-09-30T23:55:28Z

Michaelaf: /* References */

Aaron Balliet was born in North Whitehall Township on March 7, 1813 (Roberts et al. 1914: 48) to Stephen Balliet and Susan Ibrie. <ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884, 505.</ref> He was educated in North Whitehall Township (Roberts et al. 1914: 48). Aaron Balliet was descended from Paulus Balliet who emigrated from Alsace and landed in America in 1736 <ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884, 510-511.</ref>. In 1845, her married Sarah Dengler and had 8 children, 6 of which survived to adulthood. He remarried in 1867 to Catherine Housman. He held local posts such as justice of the peace and school director and also was an active member of the German Reformed Church of Unionville. <ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884, 505.</ref>

Aaron Balliet along with his brother in-law [[Benjamin Levan (1806-1886)]] and father built and operated the Coplay iron furnaces (Roberts et al. 1914: 48). They formed Stephen Balliet & Co. in the summer of 1853 and started out with 12 acres of land on the West bank of Coplay Creek. The same year the land was acquired, the base of the furnace was finished along with houses for workers. By 1854,the stack of the furnace was built. In 1854, Stephen Balliet Sr. died and the company admitted new partners and became the Lehigh Valley Iron Company which consisted of 40 corporations and was worth $200,000.<ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 502.</ref>

Aaron also took over the Penn Furnace from his father from 1838-1855. This forge was built by Stephen Balliet and Samuel Helffrich on land east of the mountain in the East Penn township. <ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884, 722.</ref>

Aaron managed mines with his brothers, Paul and John Balliet. Their mines were extremely prosperous, especially during wartime when they produced $35,000 worth of material in one year. <ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884, 523.</ref>

==References==
Mathews, Alfred, and Austin N Hungerford. 1884. History of the Counties of Lehigh and Carbon, in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. Philadelphia: Everts & Richards. https://books.google.com/books?id=pSBEAQAAMAAJ&dq=mathews%20hungerford%20lehigh&pg=PR3#v=snippet&q=Aaron%20Balliet&f=false.

Roberts, Charles Rhoads, John Baer Stoudt, Thomas H. Krick, and William J. Dietrich. 1914. History of Lehigh County, Pennsylvania, and a Genealogical and Biographical Record of Its Families. Allentown, Pa.: Lehigh Valley publishing Company, Limited. https://books.google.com/books?id=mzQPAQAAMAAJ&dq=lehigh%20furnace&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false.

Aaron Balliet (1813-1895)

2018-09-30T23:55:12Z

Michaelaf: /* References */

Aaron Balliet was born in North Whitehall Township on March 7, 1813 (Roberts et al. 1914: 48) to Stephen Balliet and Susan Ibrie. <ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884, 505.</ref> He was educated in North Whitehall Township (Roberts et al. 1914: 48). Aaron Balliet was descended from Paulus Balliet who emigrated from Alsace and landed in America in 1736 <ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884, 510-511.</ref>. In 1845, her married Sarah Dengler and had 8 children, 6 of which survived to adulthood. He remarried in 1867 to Catherine Housman. He held local posts such as justice of the peace and school director and also was an active member of the German Reformed Church of Unionville. <ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884, 505.</ref>

Aaron Balliet along with his brother in-law [[Benjamin Levan (1806-1886)]] and father built and operated the Coplay iron furnaces (Roberts et al. 1914: 48). They formed Stephen Balliet & Co. in the summer of 1853 and started out with 12 acres of land on the West bank of Coplay Creek. The same year the land was acquired, the base of the furnace was finished along with houses for workers. By 1854,the stack of the furnace was built. In 1854, Stephen Balliet Sr. died and the company admitted new partners and became the Lehigh Valley Iron Company which consisted of 40 corporations and was worth $200,000.<ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 502.</ref>

Aaron also took over the Penn Furnace from his father from 1838-1855. This forge was built by Stephen Balliet and Samuel Helffrich on land east of the mountain in the East Penn township. <ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884, 722.</ref>

Aaron managed mines with his brothers, Paul and John Balliet. Their mines were extremely prosperous, especially during wartime when they produced $35,000 worth of material in one year. <ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884, 523.</ref>

==References==
Mathews, Alfred, and Austin N Hungerford. 1884. History of the Counties of Lehigh and Carbon, in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. Philadelphia: Everts & Richards.

Roberts, Charles Rhoads, John Baer Stoudt, Thomas H. Krick, and William J. Dietrich. 1914. History of Lehigh County, Pennsylvania, and a Genealogical and Biographical Record of Its Families. Allentown, Pa.: Lehigh Valley publishing Company, Limited. https://books.google.com/books?id=mzQPAQAAMAAJ&dq=lehigh%20furnace&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false.

Aaron Balliet (1813-1895)

2018-09-30T23:54:28Z

Michaelaf:

Aaron Balliet was born in North Whitehall Township on March 7, 1813 (Roberts et al. 1914: 48) to Stephen Balliet and Susan Ibrie. <ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884, 505.</ref> He was educated in North Whitehall Township (Roberts et al. 1914: 48). Aaron Balliet was descended from Paulus Balliet who emigrated from Alsace and landed in America in 1736 <ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884, 510-511.</ref>. In 1845, her married Sarah Dengler and had 8 children, 6 of which survived to adulthood. He remarried in 1867 to Catherine Housman. He held local posts such as justice of the peace and school director and also was an active member of the German Reformed Church of Unionville. <ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884, 505.</ref>

Aaron Balliet along with his brother in-law [[Benjamin Levan (1806-1886)]] and father built and operated the Coplay iron furnaces (Roberts et al. 1914: 48). They formed Stephen Balliet & Co. in the summer of 1853 and started out with 12 acres of land on the West bank of Coplay Creek. The same year the land was acquired, the base of the furnace was finished along with houses for workers. By 1854,the stack of the furnace was built. In 1854, Stephen Balliet Sr. died and the company admitted new partners and became the Lehigh Valley Iron Company which consisted of 40 corporations and was worth $200,000.<ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 502.</ref>

Aaron also took over the Penn Furnace from his father from 1838-1855. This forge was built by Stephen Balliet and Samuel Helffrich on land east of the mountain in the East Penn township. <ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884, 722.</ref>

Aaron managed mines with his brothers, Paul and John Balliet. Their mines were extremely prosperous, especially during wartime when they produced $35,000 worth of material in one year. <ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884, 523.</ref>

==References==

Roberts, Charles Rhoads, John Baer Stoudt, Thomas H. Krick, and William J. Dietrich. 1914. History of Lehigh County, Pennsylvania, and a Genealogical and Biographical Record of Its Families. Allentown, Pa.: Lehigh Valley publishing Company, Limited. https://books.google.com/books?id=mzQPAQAAMAAJ&dq=lehigh%20furnace&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false.

Aaron Balliet (1813-1895)

2018-09-30T23:54:12Z

Michaelaf: /* Coplay Iron-Works */

Aaron Balliet was born in North Whitehall Township on March 7, 1813 (Roberts et al. 1914: 48) to Stephen Balliet and Susan Ibrie. <ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884, 505.</ref> He was educated in North Whitehall Township (Roberts et al. 1914: 48). Aaron Balliet was descended from Paulus Balliet who emigrated from Alsace and landed in America in 1736 <ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884, 510-511.</ref>. In 1845, her married Sarah Dengler and had 8 children, 6 of which survived to adulthood. He remarried in 1867 to Catherine Housman. He held local posts such as justice of the peace and school director and also was an active member of the German Reformed Church of Unionville. <ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884, 505.</ref>

Aaron Balliet along with his brother in-law [[Benjamin Levan (1806-1886)]] and father built and operated the Coplay iron furnaces (Roberts et al. 1914: 48). They formed Stephen Balliet & Co. in the summer of 1853 and started out with 12 acres of land on the West bank of Coplay Creek. The same year the land was acquired, the base of the furnace was finished along with houses for workers. By 1854,the stack of the furnace was built. In 1854, Stephen Balliet Sr. died and the company admitted new partners and became the Lehigh Valley Iron Company which consisted of 40 corporations and was worth $200,000.<ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 502.</ref>

Aaron also took over the Penn Furnace from his father from 1838-1855. This forge was built by Stephen Balliet and Samuel Helffrich on land east of the mountain in the East Penn township. <ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884, 722.</ref>

Aaron managed mines with his brothers, Paul and John Balliet. Their mines were extremely prosperous, especially during wartime when they produced $35,000 worth of material in one year. <ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884, 523.</ref>

==References==

Roberts, Charles Rhoads, John Baer Stoudt, Thomas H. Krick, and William J. Dietrich. 1914. History of Lehigh County, Pennsylvania, and a Genealogical and Biographical Record of Its Families. Allentown, Pa.: Lehigh Valley publishing Company, Limited. https://books.google.com/books?id=mzQPAQAAMAAJ&dq=lehigh%20furnace&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false.

Aaron Balliet (1813-1895)

2018-09-30T23:50:36Z

Michaelaf: /* Background */

Aaron Balliet was born in North Whitehall Township on March 7, 1813 (Roberts et al. 1914: 48) to Stephen Balliet and Susan Ibrie. <ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884, 505.</ref> He was educated in North Whitehall Township (Roberts et al. 1914: 48). Aaron Balliet was descended from Paulus Balliet who emigrated from Alsace and landed in America in 1736 <ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884, 510-511.</ref>. In 1845, her married Sarah Dengler and had 8 children, 6 of which survived to adulthood. He remarried in 1867 to Catherine Housman. He held local posts such as justice of the peace and school director and also was an active member of the German Reformed Church of Unionville. <ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884, 505.</ref>

==Coplay Iron-Works==
Aaron Balliet along with his brother in-law [[Benjamin Levan (1806-1886)]] and father built and operated the Coplay iron furnaces (Roberts et al. 1914: 48). They formed Stephen Balliet & Co. in the summer of 1853 and started out with 12 acres of land on the West bank of Coplay Creek. The same year the land was acquired, the base of the furnace was finished along with houses for workers. By 1854,the stack of the furnace was built. In 1854, Stephen Balliet Sr. died and the company admitted new partners and became the Lehigh Valley Iron Company which consisted of 40 corporations and was worth $200,000.<ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 502.</ref>

==References==

Roberts, Charles Rhoads, John Baer Stoudt, Thomas H. Krick, and William J. Dietrich. 1914. History of Lehigh County, Pennsylvania, and a Genealogical and Biographical Record of Its Families. Allentown, Pa.: Lehigh Valley publishing Company, Limited. https://books.google.com/books?id=mzQPAQAAMAAJ&dq=lehigh%20furnace&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false.

Aaron Balliet (1813-1895)

2018-09-30T23:44:47Z

Michaelaf:

==Background==
Aaron Balliet was born in North Whitehall Township on March 7, 1813 (Roberts et al. 1914: 48) to Stephen Balliet and Susan Ibrie. <ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884, 505.</ref> He was educated in North Whitehall Township (Roberts et al. 1914: 48). Aaron Balliet was descended from Paulus Balliet who emigrated from Alsace and landed in America in 1736 <ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884, 510-511.</ref>. In 1845, her married Sarah Dengler and had 8 children, 6 of which survived to adulthood. He remarried in 1867 to Catherine Housman. He held local posts such as justice of the peace and school director and also was an active member of the German Reformed Church of Unionville. <ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884, 505.</ref>

==Coplay Iron-Works==
Aaron Balliet along with his brother in-law [[Benjamin Levan (1806-1886)]] and father built and operated the Coplay iron furnaces (Roberts et al. 1914: 48). They formed Stephen Balliet & Co. in the summer of 1853 and started out with 12 acres of land on the West bank of Coplay Creek. The same year the land was acquired, the base of the furnace was finished along with houses for workers. By 1854,the stack of the furnace was built. In 1854, Stephen Balliet Sr. died and the company admitted new partners and became the Lehigh Valley Iron Company which consisted of 40 corporations and was worth $200,000.<ref>Matthews and Hungerford 1884. 502.</ref>

==References==

Roberts, Charles Rhoads, John Baer Stoudt, Thomas H. Krick, and William J. Dietrich. 1914. History of Lehigh County, Pennsylvania, and a Genealogical and Biographical Record of Its Families. Allentown, Pa.: Lehigh Valley publishing Company, Limited. https://books.google.com/books?id=mzQPAQAAMAAJ&dq=lehigh%20furnace&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false.

Iron production

2018-09-26T02:48:39Z

Michaelaf: /* Blast Furnace */

Iron production converts iron ore into pig iron through a process known as [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smelting smelting] at a furnace. Early in the history of iron production in the US, most furnaces used charcoal as fuel, so [[charcoal production]] and iron production were often closely linked. Ironworks are some of the first and most enduring examples of industry in the United States, and remnants of them survive particularly well in rural parts of the country. <ref>McVarish, D.C. 2008, p. 259.</ref>

==History==
In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, small-scale metalworking operations produced everyday objects like many forms of kitchenware, toys, building materials, and tools. <ref>McVarish, D.C. 2008, p. 259.</ref> Iron plantations were rural communities that often included forges, housing for workers, woodlands for charcoal production, and a sawmill <ref>McVarish, D.C. 2008, p. 259.</ref>. Bloomeries were were early centers of liited iron production. In a bloomery, the iron oxides in ore were reduced to metal and metal was separated from gangue in the ore. The fire created liquid slag and burning charcoal produced carbon dioxide reduced the oxide to metallic iron. Blast furnaces were also used for larger-scale iron production. These furnaces could be 25 to 30 feet high and had hollow centers into which was placed ore, fuel, and flux. Bellows were powered by a water wheel and melted iron and liquid slag accumulated in the bottom of the furnace. <ref>McVarish, D.C. 2008, p. 260.</ref> By the nineteenth century, blast furnaces were the most common. <ref>McVarish, D.C. 2008, p. 266.</ref>

==Iron Communities==
Self-sufficient communities, called iron plantations, were built around these furnaces. Many workers were needed to run an iron plantation, including colliers, miners, woodcutters, molders, founders, patternmakers and their helpers. Hopewell Furnace, in Pennsylvania, employed roughly 200-250 people in the nineteenth century. Workers at iron plantations would often bring their families along with them, so the community at Hopewell Furnace would have consisted of about 600 people. <ref>McVarish, D.C. 2008, p. 259.</ref> The lands of iron plantations would include housing, gristmills and sawmills, farming land, and vast amounts of woodland, as well as barns, company stores, springhouses, blacksmiths, schools, churches, carpenter's shops, forges, casting houses, charcoal storage, and many other buildings. <ref>McVarish, D.C. 2008, p. 259.</ref>

==Fuel==
Prior to the 1830s, every furnace in the US burned charcoal as fuel. Charcoal was used because it could be produced in large quantities, it burns hotter than wood, and it is almost pure carbon, so it reduces impurities in iron produced. <ref>McVarish, D.C. 2008, p. 260.</ref> To make charcoal, a variety of methods were used including hearths and kilns. Hearths were generally used in the pre-Civil War period and involved burning wood in earth-covered mounds. Kilns were made of brick and were more efficient. They also created more durable charcoal than hearths, which yielded more brittle charcoal. <ref>McVarish, D.C. 2008, p. 262.</ref> Around the 1860s, coal and coke began to replace charcoal in some areas, but overall iron production increased so much that the use of charcoal still continued to rise up to 1890, and the last charcoal-powered furnace in the US was in blast until 1945. <ref>Straka, T.J. 2014, p. 104.</ref>

==Operation==
Efficiency was known to be inconsistent between furnaces in different places and at different times. Factors affecting this include differences in furnace construction and operation, as well as varying compositions of iron ore and qualities of charcoal used. <ref>Straka, T.J. 2014, p. 105.</ref> [[Ironworks]] had to be near water and sources of raw materials such as charcoal,
limestone, and iron ore. <ref>McVarish, D.C. 2008, p. 259.</ref> Colonial ironworks used a variety of techniques to produce iron.

===Bloomery===
A bloomery was a small operation that heated iron ore to refine and shape it, producing wrought iron. Bloomeries needed simple equipment like a hearth, a bellows, and a tool for manipulating the iron. Bloomeries were common in colonial America, and operated between the seventeenth and twentieth centuries. Disadvantages of bloomeries include limited production, wasted heat, and an inability to completely separate the iron from slag.<ref>McVarish, D.C. 2008, p. 260.</ref>

===Blast Furnace===
Blast furnaces addressed many of the disadvantages of bloomeries. They could be run continuously for months at at time and conserved heat, and they could produce much more iron. Blast furnaces were vertical, hollow structures, the top of which would be loaded with ore, fuel, and flux, while the bottom had air vents and a hole for the molten iron to run out. Blast furnaces tended to be 25-30 feet high at first, and eventually grew to 32-40 feet high in the nineteenth century. They had very thick stone walls, with fire-resistant interior lining. A layer between the lining and outer stones, usually made of clay or smaller stones, provided better insulation and allowed the inner walls to expand slightly when heated. Bellows, which pumped air into the furnace to feed the flames, were often powered by waterwheels, equal to about 20 horsepower. By adjusting ventilation, the temperature inside blast furnaces could be controlled to a degree. Because blast furnaces were loaded from the top, they were often located along hillsides. When the molten iron was ready to be collected, or tapped, smaller hole at the top was opened to allow the liquid slag, which sat on top of the iron because it was lighter, to be drawn away. After the slag was collected, the main plug was pulled, and the molten iron ran into sand molds. The iron produced in blast furnaces is called pig iron because the final product resembles piglets suckling on their mother. After the iron ran into the molds and was cooled, the "pigs" were broken off the "sows." These smaller pieces were more valuable than the metal in the runners which would need to be remelted. <ref>McVarish, D.C. 2008, p. 260-265.</ref>

===Finery===
Finery converted pig iron to wrought iron, and was introduced to North America in the seventeenth century. Some types of finery required the use of charcoal because coal introduced too many impurities to the iron. There were at least four types of finery used in the United States.

====Walloon Process====
The Walloon Process was the original fining technique. The Walloon Process involved pushing a pig of iron into a hearth full of charcoal at a downward angle to melt it, working it into a mass called a loup, and hammering it to expel slag. The Walloon Process required a lot of air to heat the flames and the quality of wrought iron produced was heavily dependent on the skill of the workers making it. <ref>McVarish, D.C. 2008, p. 268.</ref>

====Lancashire (Charcoal Hearth) Process====
Lancashire Process involved moving the pig iron through the hottest part of a flame to burn off impurities and allowing the melted iron to accumulate at the bottom. Workers would then lift the iron, cut into it, and force slag in to oxidize what impurities remained. The iron was then broken up, remelted, and formed into a loup via hammering. The Lancashire Process reused heat from the flames to preheat air being pumped in by the bellows, making it more heat-efficient than the Walloon Process. <ref>McVarish, D.C. 2008, p. 268-269.</ref>

===Puddling===
Puddling was a larger scale way to produce wrought iron than a finery that was able to use mineral coals instead of charcoal. To prevent impurities from the coal from contaminating the iron, puddling placed the coal in an adjacent chamber to the iron, where most of the heat reached the iron by reflecting off the ceiling. This is where the name "puddling" comes from. Puddlers could handle three times as much iron as a finer: 600 pounds at a time. Workers would push any solidifying clumps of iron under the surface of the molten mix so they wouldn't oxidize. After most of the impurities had oxidized, a worker would split the iron into three lumps, which would be pressed by a machine called a squeezer to press out the remaining liquid slag. <ref>McVarish, D.C. 2008, p. 270.</ref>

===Forging===
Forging produced wrought iron using blooms and rods. Forging is effectively hammering. Large hammers between 50-400 pounds could be used; lighter hammers typically produced smaller things. Forging hammers were automated by waterwheel or steam power, and could strike up to 250 times per minute. <ref>McVarish, D.C. 2008, p. 271.</ref>

==Notes==
<references />

==References==
* Straka, T. J. (2014). Historic Charcoal Production in the US and Forest Depletion: Development of
Production Parameters. Advances in Historical Studies, 3, 104-114. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ahs.2014.32010

*McVarish, Douglas C. 2008. American Industrial Archaeology: A Field Guide. Walnut Creek, Calif.: Left Coast Press, Inc.

Iron production

2018-09-26T02:32:28Z

Michaelaf: /* Fuel */

Iron production converts iron ore into pig iron through a process known as [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smelting smelting] at a furnace. Early in the history of iron production in the US, most furnaces used charcoal as fuel, so [[charcoal production]] and iron production were often closely linked. Ironworks are some of the first and most enduring examples of industry in the United States, and remnants of them survive particularly well in rural parts of the country. <ref>McVarish, D.C. 2008, p. 259.</ref>

==History==
In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, small-scale metalworking operations produced everyday objects like many forms of kitchenware, toys, building materials, and tools. <ref>McVarish, D.C. 2008, p. 259.</ref> Iron plantations were rural communities that often included forges, housing for workers, woodlands for charcoal production, and a sawmill <ref>McVarish, D.C. 2008, p. 259.</ref>. Bloomeries were were early centers of liited iron production. In a bloomery, the iron oxides in ore were reduced to metal and metal was separated from gangue in the ore. The fire created liquid slag and burning charcoal produced carbon dioxide reduced the oxide to metallic iron. Blast furnaces were also used for larger-scale iron production. These furnaces could be 25 to 30 feet high and had hollow centers into which was placed ore, fuel, and flux. Bellows were powered by a water wheel and melted iron and liquid slag accumulated in the bottom of the furnace. <ref>McVarish, D.C. 2008, p. 260.</ref> By the nineteenth century, blast furnaces were the most common. <ref>McVarish, D.C. 2008, p. 266.</ref>

==Iron Communities==
Self-sufficient communities, called iron plantations, were built around these furnaces. Many workers were needed to run an iron plantation, including colliers, miners, woodcutters, molders, founders, patternmakers and their helpers. Hopewell Furnace, in Pennsylvania, employed roughly 200-250 people in the nineteenth century. Workers at iron plantations would often bring their families along with them, so the community at Hopewell Furnace would have consisted of about 600 people. <ref>McVarish, D.C. 2008, p. 259.</ref> The lands of iron plantations would include housing, gristmills and sawmills, farming land, and vast amounts of woodland, as well as barns, company stores, springhouses, blacksmiths, schools, churches, carpenter's shops, forges, casting houses, charcoal storage, and many other buildings. <ref>McVarish, D.C. 2008, p. 259.</ref>

==Fuel==
Prior to the 1830s, every furnace in the US burned charcoal as fuel. Charcoal was used because it could be produced in large quantities, it burns hotter than wood, and it is almost pure carbon, so it reduces impurities in iron produced. <ref>McVarish, D.C. 2008, p. 260.</ref> To make charcoal, a variety of methods were used including hearths and kilns. Hearths were generally used in the pre-Civil War period and involved burning wood in earth-covered mounds. Kilns were made of brick and were more efficient. They also created more durable charcoal than hearths, which yielded more brittle charcoal. <ref>McVarish, D.C. 2008, p. 262.</ref> Around the 1860s, coal and coke began to replace charcoal in some areas, but overall iron production increased so much that the use of charcoal still continued to rise up to 1890, and the last charcoal-powered furnace in the US was in blast until 1945. <ref>Straka, T.J. 2014, p. 104.</ref>

==Operation==
Efficiency was known to be inconsistent between furnaces in different places and at different times. Factors affecting this include differences in furnace construction and operation, as well as varying compositions of iron ore and qualities of charcoal used. <ref>Straka, T.J. 2014, p. 105.</ref> [[Ironworks]] had to be near water and sources of raw materials such as charcoal,
limestone, and iron ore. <ref>McVarish, D.C. 2008, p. 259.</ref> Colonial ironworks used a variety of techniques to produce iron.

===Bloomery===
A bloomery was a small operation that heated iron ore to refine and shape it, producing wrought iron. Bloomeries needed simple equipment like a hearth, a bellows, and a tool for manipulating the iron. Bloomeries were common in colonial America, and operated between the seventeenth and twentieth centuries. Disadvantages of bloomeries include limited production, wasted heat, and an inability to completely separate the iron from slag.<ref>McVarish, D.C. 2008, p. 260.</ref>

===Blast Furnace===
Blast furnaces addressed many of the disadvantages of bloomeries. They could be run continuously for months at at time and conserved heat, and they could produce much more iron. Blast furnaces were vertical, hollow structures, the top of which would be loaded with ore, fuel, and flux, while the bottom had air vents and a hole for the molten iron to run out. Blast furnaces tended to be 25-30 feet high at first, and eventually grew to 32-40 feet high in the nineteenth century. They had very thick stone walls, with fire-resistant interior lining. A layer between the lining and outer stones, usually made of clay or smaller stones, provided better insulation and allowed the inner walls to expand slightly when heated. Bellows, which pumped air into the furnace to feed the flames, were often powered by waterwheels, equal to about 20 horsepower. By adjusting ventilation, the temperature inside blast furnaces could be controlled to a degree. Because blast furnaces were loaded from the top, they were often located along hillsides. When the molten iron was ready to be collected, or tapped, smaller hole at the top was opened to allow the liquid slag, which sat on top of the iron because it was lighter, to be drawn away. After the slag was collected, the main plug was pulled, and the molten iron ran into sand molds. The iron produced in blast furnaces is called pig iron. <ref>McVarish, D.C. 2008, p. 260-265.</ref>

===Finery===
Finery converted pig iron to wrought iron, and was introduced to North America in the seventeenth century. Some types of finery required the use of charcoal because coal introduced too many impurities to the iron. There were at least four types of finery used in the United States.

====Walloon Process====
The Walloon Process was the original fining technique. The Walloon Process involved pushing a pig of iron into a hearth full of charcoal at a downward angle to melt it, working it into a mass called a loup, and hammering it to expel slag. The Walloon Process required a lot of air to heat the flames and the quality of wrought iron produced was heavily dependent on the skill of the workers making it. <ref>McVarish, D.C. 2008, p. 268.</ref>

====Lancashire (Charcoal Hearth) Process====
Lancashire Process involved moving the pig iron through the hottest part of a flame to burn off impurities and allowing the melted iron to accumulate at the bottom. Workers would then lift the iron, cut into it, and force slag in to oxidize what impurities remained. The iron was then broken up, remelted, and formed into a loup via hammering. The Lancashire Process reused heat from the flames to preheat air being pumped in by the bellows, making it more heat-efficient than the Walloon Process. <ref>McVarish, D.C. 2008, p. 268-269.</ref>

===Puddling===
Puddling was a larger scale way to produce wrought iron than a finery that was able to use mineral coals instead of charcoal. To prevent impurities from the coal from contaminating the iron, puddling placed the coal in an adjacent chamber to the iron, where most of the heat reached the iron by reflecting off the ceiling. This is where the name "puddling" comes from. Puddlers could handle three times as much iron as a finer: 600 pounds at a time. Workers would push any solidifying clumps of iron under the surface of the molten mix so they wouldn't oxidize. After most of the impurities had oxidized, a worker would split the iron into three lumps, which would be pressed by a machine called a squeezer to press out the remaining liquid slag. <ref>McVarish, D.C. 2008, p. 270.</ref>

===Forging===
Forging produced wrought iron using blooms and rods. Forging is effectively hammering. Large hammers between 50-400 pounds could be used; lighter hammers typically produced smaller things. Forging hammers were automated by waterwheel or steam power, and could strike up to 250 times per minute. <ref>McVarish, D.C. 2008, p. 271.</ref>

==Notes==
<references />

==References==
* Straka, T. J. (2014). Historic Charcoal Production in the US and Forest Depletion: Development of
Production Parameters. Advances in Historical Studies, 3, 104-114. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ahs.2014.32010

*McVarish, Douglas C. 2008. American Industrial Archaeology: A Field Guide. Walnut Creek, Calif.: Left Coast Press, Inc.

Iron production

2018-09-26T02:24:55Z

Michaelaf: /* History */

Iron production converts iron ore into pig iron through a process known as [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smelting smelting] at a furnace. Early in the history of iron production in the US, most furnaces used charcoal as fuel, so [[charcoal production]] and iron production were often closely linked. Ironworks are some of the first and most enduring examples of industry in the United States, and remnants of them survive particularly well in rural parts of the country. <ref>McVarish, D.C. 2008, p. 259.</ref>

==History==
In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, small-scale metalworking operations produced everyday objects like many forms of kitchenware, toys, building materials, and tools. <ref>McVarish, D.C. 2008, p. 259.</ref> Iron plantations were rural communities that often included forges, housing for workers, woodlands for charcoal production, and a sawmill <ref>McVarish, D.C. 2008, p. 259.</ref>. Bloomeries were were early centers of liited iron production. In a bloomery, the iron oxides in ore were reduced to metal and metal was separated from gangue in the ore. The fire created liquid slag and burning charcoal produced carbon dioxide reduced the oxide to metallic iron. Blast furnaces were also used for larger-scale iron production. These furnaces could be 25 to 30 feet high and had hollow centers into which was placed ore, fuel, and flux. Bellows were powered by a water wheel and melted iron and liquid slag accumulated in the bottom of the furnace. <ref>McVarish, D.C. 2008, p. 260.</ref> By the nineteenth century, blast furnaces were the most common. <ref>McVarish, D.C. 2008, p. 266.</ref>

==Iron Communities==
Self-sufficient communities, called iron plantations, were built around these furnaces. Many workers were needed to run an iron plantation, including colliers, miners, woodcutters, molders, founders, patternmakers and their helpers. Hopewell Furnace, in Pennsylvania, employed roughly 200-250 people in the nineteenth century. Workers at iron plantations would often bring their families along with them, so the community at Hopewell Furnace would have consisted of about 600 people. <ref>McVarish, D.C. 2008, p. 259.</ref> The lands of iron plantations would include housing, gristmills and sawmills, farming land, and vast amounts of woodland, as well as barns, company stores, springhouses, blacksmiths, schools, churches, carpenter's shops, forges, casting houses, charcoal storage, and many other buildings. <ref>McVarish, D.C. 2008, p. 259.</ref>

==Fuel==
Prior to the 1830s, every furnace in the US burned charcoal as fuel. Charcoal was used because it could be produced in large quantities, it burns hotter than wood, and it is almost pure carbon, so it reduces impurities in iron produced. <ref>McVarish, D.C. 2008, p. 260.</ref> Around the 1860s, coal and coke began to replace charcoal in some areas, but overall iron production increased so much that the use of charcoal still continued to rise up to 1890, and the last charcoal-powered furnace in the US was in blast until 1945. <ref>Straka, T.J. 2014, p. 104.</ref>

==Operation==
Efficiency was known to be inconsistent between furnaces in different places and at different times. Factors affecting this include differences in furnace construction and operation, as well as varying compositions of iron ore and qualities of charcoal used. <ref>Straka, T.J. 2014, p. 105.</ref> [[Ironworks]] had to be near water and sources of raw materials such as charcoal,
limestone, and iron ore. <ref>McVarish, D.C. 2008, p. 259.</ref> Colonial ironworks used a variety of techniques to produce iron.

===Bloomery===
A bloomery was a small operation that heated iron ore to refine and shape it, producing wrought iron. Bloomeries needed simple equipment like a hearth, a bellows, and a tool for manipulating the iron. Bloomeries were common in colonial America, and operated between the seventeenth and twentieth centuries. Disadvantages of bloomeries include limited production, wasted heat, and an inability to completely separate the iron from slag.<ref>McVarish, D.C. 2008, p. 260.</ref>

===Blast Furnace===
Blast furnaces addressed many of the disadvantages of bloomeries. They could be run continuously for months at at time and conserved heat, and they could produce much more iron. Blast furnaces were vertical, hollow structures, the top of which would be loaded with ore, fuel, and flux, while the bottom had air vents and a hole for the molten iron to run out. Blast furnaces tended to be 25-30 feet high at first, and eventually grew to 32-40 feet high in the nineteenth century. They had very thick stone walls, with fire-resistant interior lining. A layer between the lining and outer stones, usually made of clay or smaller stones, provided better insulation and allowed the inner walls to expand slightly when heated. Bellows, which pumped air into the furnace to feed the flames, were often powered by waterwheels, equal to about 20 horsepower. By adjusting ventilation, the temperature inside blast furnaces could be controlled to a degree. Because blast furnaces were loaded from the top, they were often located along hillsides. When the molten iron was ready to be collected, or tapped, smaller hole at the top was opened to allow the liquid slag, which sat on top of the iron because it was lighter, to be drawn away. After the slag was collected, the main plug was pulled, and the molten iron ran into sand molds. The iron produced in blast furnaces is called pig iron. <ref>McVarish, D.C. 2008, p. 260-265.</ref>

===Finery===
Finery converted pig iron to wrought iron, and was introduced to North America in the seventeenth century. Some types of finery required the use of charcoal because coal introduced too many impurities to the iron. There were at least four types of finery used in the United States.

====Walloon Process====
The Walloon Process was the original fining technique. The Walloon Process involved pushing a pig of iron into a hearth full of charcoal at a downward angle to melt it, working it into a mass called a loup, and hammering it to expel slag. The Walloon Process required a lot of air to heat the flames and the quality of wrought iron produced was heavily dependent on the skill of the workers making it. <ref>McVarish, D.C. 2008, p. 268.</ref>

====Lancashire (Charcoal Hearth) Process====
Lancashire Process involved moving the pig iron through the hottest part of a flame to burn off impurities and allowing the melted iron to accumulate at the bottom. Workers would then lift the iron, cut into it, and force slag in to oxidize what impurities remained. The iron was then broken up, remelted, and formed into a loup via hammering. The Lancashire Process reused heat from the flames to preheat air being pumped in by the bellows, making it more heat-efficient than the Walloon Process. <ref>McVarish, D.C. 2008, p. 268-269.</ref>

===Puddling===
Puddling was a larger scale way to produce wrought iron than a finery that was able to use mineral coals instead of charcoal. To prevent impurities from the coal from contaminating the iron, puddling placed the coal in an adjacent chamber to the iron, where most of the heat reached the iron by reflecting off the ceiling. This is where the name "puddling" comes from. Puddlers could handle three times as much iron as a finer: 600 pounds at a time. Workers would push any solidifying clumps of iron under the surface of the molten mix so they wouldn't oxidize. After most of the impurities had oxidized, a worker would split the iron into three lumps, which would be pressed by a machine called a squeezer to press out the remaining liquid slag. <ref>McVarish, D.C. 2008, p. 270.</ref>

===Forging===
Forging produced wrought iron using blooms and rods. Forging is effectively hammering. Large hammers between 50-400 pounds could be used; lighter hammers typically produced smaller things. Forging hammers were automated by waterwheel or steam power, and could strike up to 250 times per minute. <ref>McVarish, D.C. 2008, p. 271.</ref>

==Notes==
<references />

==References==
* Straka, T. J. (2014). Historic Charcoal Production in the US and Forest Depletion: Development of
Production Parameters. Advances in Historical Studies, 3, 104-114. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ahs.2014.32010

*McVarish, Douglas C. 2008. American Industrial Archaeology: A Field Guide. Walnut Creek, Calif.: Left Coast Press, Inc.

Iron production

2018-09-25T18:47:26Z

Michaelaf: /* History */

Iron production

2018-09-25T18:46:53Z

Michaelaf: /* Operation */

Iron production

2018-09-25T18:46:27Z

Michaelaf: /* History */

Collier huts

2018-09-12T01:03:14Z

Michaelaf: /* Location */

While producing charcoal, colliers stayed in temporary huts.

==Construction==
The huts were conical, with a base 8 feet across and 10 feet high. Three inch poles were used as the basic structure and the spaces between them were filled in with smaller poles. The basic structure was wood, with leaves and soil acting as insulation and filling in the gaps between posts. Additionally, huts had a small door, a hearth, and wooden cots. <ref>Kemper 1941, p. 8.</ref>

==Location==
A collier would construct his hut in a location as central to the charcoal pits he was burning as possible. <ref>Kemper 1941, p. 8.</ref> <ref>Walker 1966, p. 242.</ref> Throughout the burning process, the charcoal hearths required constant tending throughout the day and night. If a collier let the fire consume his wood completely, he would be charged for its loss so proximity to one's hearths was very important. <ref>Walker 1966, p. 247.</ref>

==Notes==
<references />

==References==
* Kemper, Jackson. 1941. American Charcoal Making in the Era of the Cold-Blast Furnace. History 14. Washignton, D.C.: U.S. Department of the Interior; National Park Service.
* Walker, Joseph E. 1966. Hopewell Village; a Social and Economic History of an Iron-Making Community. Philadelphia,: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press.

Collier huts

2018-09-12T00:58:45Z

Michaelaf: /* Construction */

While producing charcoal, colliers stayed in temporary huts.

==Construction==
The huts were conical, with a base 8 feet across and 10 feet high. Three inch poles were used as the basic structure and the spaces between them were filled in with smaller poles. The basic structure was wood, with leaves and soil acting as insulation and filling in the gaps between posts. Additionally, huts had a small door, a hearth, and wooden cots. <ref>Kemper 1941, p. 8.</ref>

==Location==
A collier would construct his hut in a location as central to the charcoal pits he was burning as possible. <ref>Kemper 1941, p. 8.</ref> <ref>Walker 1966, p. 242.</ref>
==Notes==
<references />

==References==
* Kemper, Jackson. 1941. American Charcoal Making in the Era of the Cold-Blast Furnace. History 14. Washignton, D.C.: U.S. Department of the Interior; National Park Service.
* Walker, Joseph E. 1966. Hopewell Village; a Social and Economic History of an Iron-Making Community. Philadelphia,: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press.

Charcoal production

2018-09-09T17:32:26Z

Michaelaf: /* References */

In nineteenth century Pennsylvania, charcoal was produced primarily to fuel [[iron production]]. Charcoal is the result of the destructive distillation of wood to yield a fuel that is primarily carbon. In the 19th century, when iron production was at its peak, the demand for charcoal as fuel for furnaces had an impact on forests. As a result, the charcoal industry was one of the first to think about sustainability and forestry.

==Types of Wood==
While most types of wood can become charcoal, hard woods generally produced the best charcoal. Trees like oak, hickory, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chestnut chestnut], and elm were greatly preferred to softer woods, like gum and poplar.
However, heavier hardwood requires a longer burning so sometimes a mixture of hardwood and softwood was the most effective. The condition of wood was important to the quality of the charcoal output. Knots in the wood, decay, and moisture negatively impact carbonization.

==Sustainability==
The need for charcoal in the iron industry created a significant demand for wood and a great deal of trees were chopped down for its production. The average output of furnaces between 1750 and 1800 was 100 5o 400 tons of pig iron per year. This required 200 - 400 bushels of charcoal and 50 acres of trees to produce that amount. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 105.</ref> Even though the increased efficiency of furnaces decreased the necessary amount of charcoal, increased production required 150 acres of wood by 1850 and 1,400 acres by 1900. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 106.</ref>

==Making the Hearth==
Charcoal hearths require a large flat area.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref> They are often placed on hillsides to facilitate dirt movement and are usually round. In the center of the hearth, a triangular chimney is made from stacked wood. In the chimney, a large stick called the Fagan pole is inserted. The Fagan pole is used to mark the center of the pit and can be also be removed to provide drought during the process.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref>

==Piling the Wood==
After making the chimney and the pole, the collier leans pieces of hardwood around the chimney. Hardwood was the preferred type of wood to use in charcoal production because it was denser and therefore more conducive to the iron-making process.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 59.</ref>

==Covering the Wood==
The wood in the hearth is first covered with a layer of leaves or straw. Then, that is covered with dirt. The leaves act as a barrier between the wood and the dirt, helping to ensure even charring of the wood.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref>

==Igniting the Wood==
Charcoal hearths were likely lit at the top and burned downwards. <ref>Straka, 2014, pg. 107.</ref> To ignite the wood, kindling wood is put up to the top of the the chimney. Then, hot coals are dropped into the chimney and the opening is covered with a piece called the "bridgen." The bridgen is then covered with leaves and straw.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 2.</ref>

==Ending the Burn==
The burn was ended before all the charcoal was finished burning because this helped Colliers maximize production.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 4.</ref>

==Removing the Charcoal==
To remove the finished charcoal, colliers used a large rake with long times. The tines ensure that the pieces of charcoal are dragged through the dirt on their way out of the hearth. This makes sure that no fires flare up and destroy the charcoal.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 4.</ref>

==Sustainability==
The need for charcoal in the iron industry created a significant demand for wood and a great deal of trees were chopped down for its production. The average output of furnaces between 1750 and 1800 was 100 5o 400 tons of pig iron per year. This required 200 - 400 bushels of charcoal and 50 acres of trees to produce that amount. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 105.</ref> Even though the increased efficiency of furnaces decreased the necessary amount of charcoal, increased production required 150 acres of wood by 1850 and 1,400 acres by 1900. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 106.</ref>
Since forests regenerated at different rates, this impacted sustainability. In the Western United States, woodlands took decades to regrow to maturity so woodlands could be depleted in a decade. On the other hand, Eastern furnaces were some of the first to manage forests to ensure a sustainable yield. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 111.</ref>
Several early proponents of sustainable forestry were involved in the making of charcoal, like Bernhard E. Fernow, the manager of the Lehigh Furnace from 1879 to 1883. He advocated for coppicing of wood and protection from fire and cattle grazing to speed up regrowth of forest used for charcoal.

==Charcoal v. Coal==
The transition to coal as the primary fuel for furnaces began around 1840, but in 1859 around three-quarters of furnaces in America (particularly in Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York) still primarily used charcoal. Charcoal remained a source of fuel in some places until 1945.

Charcoal tended to produce a higher quality of iron than coal, partially because of its density. Iron made from charcoal had a "fine grain" compared to iron made by coal and maintained a better
cutting edge.

==Collier Life==
The public's general impression of Colliers was that they were dirty and uncivilized. The collier profession, though, was not one for the faint of heart, as great skill was required in order to successfully maintain multiple charcoal hearths at one time for months on end. <ref>Straka and Wayne 2010, p. 60</ref> Living alone, or occasionally with a son or friend, colliers couldn't afford to lose concentration or dedication for even one moment, as the slightest wayward breeze or hole in the charcoal hearth could cause irreparable damage. <ref>Fire the Pit, youtube</ref> This profession required almost constant twenty-four-hour surveillance of the hearths. The most dangerous job of a collier was called "jumping the pit."This crucial job required a collier to climb up onto the hearth and pack down the dirt as best they could. If anything went awry, they risked falling into the smoldering charcoal fire. <ref>Straka and Wayne 2010, p. 60</ref> Colliers resided in huts laid out in a circle and framed by wood, insulated later on with mud, leaves, and dirt. There was oftentimes a large stone hearth or fireplace in the corner used for cooking and heating.

==Notes==
<references />

==References==
* "Agriculture andrRural economy – Charcoal → ." The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project. Ann Arbor: Michigan Publishing, University of Michigan Library, 2010. http://hdl.handle.net/2027/spo.did2222.0001.346 (accessed [fill in today's date in the form April 18, 2009 and remove square brackets]). Originally published as "Agriculture et économie rustique – Charbon de bois," Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, vol. 1 (plates) (Paris, 1762).

* Jones, Claude A. 1976. “Making Charcoal at Jacobsburg.” In Slate Belt Bicentennial Heritage, edited by Marjorie May, Maryann Repsher, Robert R. Saltern, Gordon E. Wilson, and Albert M. Toth, 32–33. Heritage Committee of the Slate Belt Bicentennial Commission.

* Straka, Thomas J., and Wayne C. Ramer. 2010. “History on the Road: Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site.” Forest History Today Spring/Fall: 58–62. https://foresthistory.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/2010_History-on-Road.pdf

* Straka, Thomas J.. 2014. "Historic Charcoal Production in the US and Forest Depletion: Development of Production Parameters." Advances in Historical Studies: 104-114. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ahs.2014.32010

* Wagner, Van. 2008. Fire the Pit- Charcoal Production in Pennsylvania. 4 vols. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RxW7g3IwD1k ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xVE_7hMLMZU ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=88FbebFElaY ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ghj2p9rrUmM.

Charcoal production

2018-09-09T17:28:32Z

Michaelaf: /* Sustainability */

In nineteenth century Pennsylvania, charcoal was produced primarily to fuel [[iron production]]. Charcoal is the result of the destructive distillation of wood to yield a fuel that is primarily carbon. In the 19th century, when iron production was at its peak, the demand for charcoal as fuel for furnaces had an impact on forests. As a result, the charcoal industry was one of the first to think about sustainability and forestry.

==Types of Wood==
While most types of wood can become charcoal, hard woods generally produced the best charcoal. Trees like oak, hickory, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chestnut chestnut], and elm were greatly preferred to softer woods, like gum and poplar.
However, heavier hardwood requires a longer burning so sometimes a mixture of hardwood and softwood was the most effective. The condition of wood was important to the quality of the charcoal output. Knots in the wood, decay, and moisture negatively impact carbonization. ==Sustainability==
The need for charcoal in the iron industry created a significant demand for wood and a great deal of trees were chopped down for its production. The average output of furnaces between 1750 and 1800 was 100 5o 400 tons of pig iron per year. This required 200 - 400 bushels of charcoal and 50 acres of trees to produce that amount. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 105.</ref> Even though the increased efficiency of furnaces decreased the necessary amount of charcoal, increased production required 150 acres of wood by 1850 and 1,400 acres by 1900. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 106.</ref>

==Making the Hearth==
Charcoal hearths require a large flat area.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref> They are often placed on hillsides to facilitate dirt movement and are usually round. In the center of the hearth, a triangular chimney is made from stacked wood. In the chimney, a large stick called the Fagan pole is inserted. The Fagan pole is used to mark the center of the pit and can be also be removed to provide drought during the process.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref>

==Piling the Wood==
After making the chimney and the pole, the collier leans pieces of hardwood around the chimney. Hardwood was the preferred type of wood to use in charcoal production because it was denser and therefore more conducive to the iron-making process.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 59.</ref>

==Covering the Wood==
The wood in the hearth is first covered with a layer of leaves or straw. Then, that is covered with dirt. The leaves act as a barrier between the wood and the dirt, helping to ensure even charring of the wood.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref>

==Igniting the Wood==
Charcoal hearths were likely lit at the top and burned downwards. <ref>Straka, 2014, pg. 107.</ref> To ignite the wood, kindling wood is put up to the top of the the chimney. Then, hot coals are dropped into the chimney and the opening is covered with a piece called the "bridgen." The bridgen is then covered with leaves and straw.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 2.</ref>

==Ending the Burn==
The burn was ended before all the charcoal was finished burning because this helped Colliers maximize production.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 4.</ref>

==Removing the Charcoal==
To remove the finished charcoal, colliers used a large rake with long times. The tines ensure that the pieces of charcoal are dragged through the dirt on their way out of the hearth. This makes sure that no fires flare up and destroy the charcoal.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 4.</ref>

==Sustainability==
The need for charcoal in the iron industry created a significant demand for wood and a great deal of trees were chopped down for its production. The average output of furnaces between 1750 and 1800 was 100 5o 400 tons of pig iron per year. This required 200 - 400 bushels of charcoal and 50 acres of trees to produce that amount. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 105.</ref> Even though the increased efficiency of furnaces decreased the necessary amount of charcoal, increased production required 150 acres of wood by 1850 and 1,400 acres by 1900. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 106.</ref>
Since forests regenerated at different rates, this impacted sustainability. In the Western United States, woodlands took decades to regrow to maturity so woodlands could be depleted in a decade. On the other hand, Eastern furnaces were some of the first to manage forests to ensure a sustainable yield. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 111.</ref>
Several early proponents of sustainable forestry were involved in the making of charcoal, like Bernhard E. Fernow, the manager of the Lehigh Furnace from 1879 to 1883. He advocated for coppicing of wood and protection from fire and cattle grazing to speed up regrowth of forest used for charcoal.

==Charcoal v. Coal==
The transition to coal as the primary fuel for furnaces began around 1840, but in 1859 around three-quarters of furnaces in America (particularly in Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York) still primarily used charcoal. Charcoal remained a source of fuel in some places until 1945.

Charcoal tended to produce a higher quality of iron than coal, partially because of its density. Iron made from charcoal had a "fine grain" compared to iron made by coal and maintained a better
cutting edge.

==Collier Life==
The public's general impression of Colliers was that they were dirty and uncivilized. The collier profession, though, was not one for the faint of heart, as great skill was required in order to successfully maintain multiple charcoal hearths at one time for months on end. <ref>Straka and Wayne 2010, p. 60</ref> Living alone, or occasionally with a son or friend, colliers couldn't afford to lose concentration or dedication for even one moment, as the slightest wayward breeze or hole in the charcoal hearth could cause irreparable damage. <ref>Fire the Pit, youtube</ref> This profession required almost constant twenty-four-hour surveillance of the hearths. The most dangerous job of a collier was called "jumping the pit."This crucial job required a collier to climb up onto the hearth and pack down the dirt as best they could. If anything went awry, they risked falling into the smoldering charcoal fire. <ref>Straka and Wayne 2010, p. 60</ref> Colliers resided in huts laid out in a circle and framed by wood, insulated later on with mud, leaves, and dirt. There was oftentimes a large stone hearth or fireplace in the corner used for cooking and heating.

==Notes==
<references />

==References==
* "Agriculture andrRural economy – Charcoal → ." The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project. Ann Arbor: Michigan Publishing, University of Michigan Library, 2010. http://hdl.handle.net/2027/spo.did2222.0001.346 (accessed [fill in today's date in the form April 18, 2009 and remove square brackets]). Originally published as "Agriculture et économie rustique – Charbon de bois," Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, vol. 1 (plates) (Paris, 1762).

* Jones, Claude A. 1976. “Making Charcoal at Jacobsburg.” In Slate Belt Bicentennial Heritage, edited by Marjorie May, Maryann Repsher, Robert R. Saltern, Gordon E. Wilson, and Albert M. Toth, 32–33. Heritage Committee of the Slate Belt Bicentennial Commission.

* Straka, Thomas J., and Wayne C. Ramer. 2010. “History on the Road: Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site.” Forest History Today Spring/Fall: 58–62. https://foresthistory.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/2010_History-on-Road.pdf

* Wagner, Van. 2008. Fire the Pit- Charcoal Production in Pennsylvania. 4 vols. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RxW7g3IwD1k ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xVE_7hMLMZU ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=88FbebFElaY ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ghj2p9rrUmM.

Charcoal production

2018-09-09T17:23:31Z

Michaelaf: /* Types of Wood */

In nineteenth century Pennsylvania, charcoal was produced primarily to fuel [[iron production]]. Charcoal is the result of the destructive distillation of wood to yield a fuel that is primarily carbon. In the 19th century, when iron production was at its peak, the demand for charcoal as fuel for furnaces had an impact on forests. As a result, the charcoal industry was one of the first to think about sustainability and forestry.

==Types of Wood==
While most types of wood can become charcoal, hard woods generally produced the best charcoal. Trees like oak, hickory, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chestnut chestnut], and elm were greatly preferred to softer woods, like gum and poplar.
However, heavier hardwood requires a longer burning so sometimes a mixture of hardwood and softwood was the most effective. The condition of wood was important to the quality of the charcoal output. Knots in the wood, decay, and moisture negatively impact carbonization. ==Sustainability==
The need for charcoal in the iron industry created a significant demand for wood and a great deal of trees were chopped down for its production. The average output of furnaces between 1750 and 1800 was 100 5o 400 tons of pig iron per year. This required 200 - 400 bushels of charcoal and 50 acres of trees to produce that amount. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 105.</ref> Even though the increased efficiency of furnaces decreased the necessary amount of charcoal, increased production required 150 acres of wood by 1850 and 1,400 acres by 1900. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 106.</ref>

==Making the Hearth==
Charcoal hearths require a large flat area.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref> They are often placed on hillsides to facilitate dirt movement and are usually round. In the center of the hearth, a triangular chimney is made from stacked wood. In the chimney, a large stick called the Fagan pole is inserted. The Fagan pole is used to mark the center of the pit and can be also be removed to provide drought during the process.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref>

==Piling the Wood==
After making the chimney and the pole, the collier leans pieces of hardwood around the chimney. Hardwood was the preferred type of wood to use in charcoal production because it was denser and therefore more conducive to the iron-making process.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 59.</ref>

==Covering the Wood==
The wood in the hearth is first covered with a layer of leaves or straw. Then, that is covered with dirt. The leaves act as a barrier between the wood and the dirt, helping to ensure even charring of the wood.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref>

==Igniting the Wood==
Charcoal hearths were likely lit at the top and burned downwards. <ref>Straka, 2014, pg. 107.</ref> To ignite the wood, kindling wood is put up to the top of the the chimney. Then, hot coals are dropped into the chimney and the opening is covered with a piece called the "bridgen." The bridgen is then covered with leaves and straw.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 2.</ref>

==Ending the Burn==
The burn was ended before all the charcoal was finished burning because this helped Colliers maximize production.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 4.</ref>

==Removing the Charcoal==
To remove the finished charcoal, colliers used a large rake with long times. The tines ensure that the pieces of charcoal are dragged through the dirt on their way out of the hearth. This makes sure that no fires flare up and destroy the charcoal.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 4.</ref>

==Sustainability==
The need for charcoal in the iron industry created a significant demand for wood and a great deal of trees were chopped down for its production. The average output of furnaces between 1750 and 1800 was 100 5o 400 tons of pig iron per year. This required 200 - 400 bushels of charcoal and 50 acres of trees to produce that amount. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 105.</ref> Even though the increased efficiency of furnaces decreased the necessary amount of charcoal, increased production required 150 acres of wood by 1850 and 1,400 acres by 1900. <ref>Straka 2014, pg. 106.</ref>

Several early proponents of sustainable forestry were involved in the making of charcoal, like Bernhard E. Fernow, the manager of the Lehigh Furnace from 1879 to 1883. He advocated for coppicing of wood and protection from fire and cattle grazing to speed up regrowth of forest used for charcoal.

==Charcoal v. Coal==
The transition to coal as the primary fuel for furnaces began around 1840, but in 1859 around three-quarters of furnaces in America (particularly in Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York) still primarily used charcoal. Charcoal remained a source of fuel in some places until 1945.

Charcoal tended to produce a higher quality of iron than coal, partially because of its density. Iron made from charcoal had a "fine grain" compared to iron made by coal and maintained a better
cutting edge.

==Collier Life==
The public's general impression of Colliers was that they were dirty and uncivilized. The collier profession, though, was not one for the faint of heart, as great skill was required in order to successfully maintain multiple charcoal hearths at one time for months on end. <ref>Straka and Wayne 2010, p. 60</ref>Living alone, or occasionally with a son or friend, colliers couldn't afford to lose concentration or dedication for even one moment, as the slightest wayward breeze or hole in the charcoal hearth could cause irreparable damage. This profession required almost constant twenty-four-hour surveillance of the hearths. The most dangerous job of a collier was called "jumping the pit."This crucial job required a collier to climb up onto the hearth and pack down the dirt as best they could. If anything went awry, they risked falling into the smoldering charcoal fire. Colliers resided in huts laid out in a circle and framed by wood, insulated later on with mud, leaves, and dirt. There was oftentimes a large stone hearth or fireplace in the corner used for cooking and heating.

==Notes==
<references />

==References==
* "Agriculture andrRural economy – Charcoal → ." The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project. Ann Arbor: Michigan Publishing, University of Michigan Library, 2010. http://hdl.handle.net/2027/spo.did2222.0001.346 (accessed [fill in today's date in the form April 18, 2009 and remove square brackets]). Originally published as "Agriculture et économie rustique – Charbon de bois," Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, vol. 1 (plates) (Paris, 1762).

* Jones, Claude A. 1976. “Making Charcoal at Jacobsburg.” In Slate Belt Bicentennial Heritage, edited by Marjorie May, Maryann Repsher, Robert R. Saltern, Gordon E. Wilson, and Albert M. Toth, 32–33. Heritage Committee of the Slate Belt Bicentennial Commission.

* Straka, Thomas J., and Wayne C. Ramer. 2010. “History on the Road: Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site.” Forest History Today Spring/Fall: 58–62. https://foresthistory.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/2010_History-on-Road.pdf

* Wagner, Van. 2008. Fire the Pit- Charcoal Production in Pennsylvania. 4 vols. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RxW7g3IwD1k ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xVE_7hMLMZU ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=88FbebFElaY ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ghj2p9rrUmM.

Charcoal production

2018-09-09T17:22:37Z

Michaelaf: /* Sustainability */

In nineteenth century Pennsylvania, charcoal was produced primarily to fuel [[iron production]]. Charcoal is the result of the destructive distillation of wood to yield a fuel that is primarily carbon. In the 19th century, when iron production was at its peak, the demand for charcoal as fuel for furnaces had an impact on forests. As a result, the charcoal industry was one of the first to think about sustainability and forestry.

==Types of Wood==
While most types of wood can become charcoal, hard woods generally produced the best charcoal. Trees like oak, hickory, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chestnut chestnut], and elm were greatly preferred to softer woods, like gum and poplar.
However, heavier hardwood requires a longer burning so sometimes a mixture of hardwood and softwood was the most effective. The condition of wood was important to the quality of the charcoal output. Knots in the wood, decay, and moisture negatively impact carbonization. ==Sustainability==
The need for charcoal in the iron industry created a significant demand for wood and a great deal of trees were chopped down for its production. The average output of furnaces between 1750 and 1800 was 100 5o 400 tons of pig iron per year. This required 200 - 400 bushels of charcoal and 50 acres of trees to produce that amount. <ref>Straka and Ramer 2014, p. 105.</ref> Even though the increased efficiency of furnaces decreased the necessary amount of charcoal, increased production required 150 acres of wood by 1850 and 1,400 acres by 1900. <ref>Straka and Ramer 2014, pg. 106.</ref>

==Making the Hearth==
Charcoal hearths require a large flat area.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref> They are often placed on hillsides to facilitate dirt movement and are usually round. In the center of the hearth, a triangular chimney is made from stacked wood. In the chimney, a large stick called the Fagan pole is inserted. The Fagan pole is used to mark the center of the pit and can be also be removed to provide drought during the process.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref>

==Piling the Wood==
After making the chimney and the pole, the collier leans pieces of hardwood around the chimney. Hardwood was the preferred type of wood to use in charcoal production because it was denser and therefore more conducive to the iron-making process.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 59.</ref>

==Covering the Wood==
The wood in the hearth is first covered with a layer of leaves or straw. Then, that is covered with dirt. The leaves act as a barrier between the wood and the dirt, helping to ensure even charring of the wood.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref>

==Igniting the Wood==
Charcoal hearths were likely lit at the top and burned downwards. <ref>Straka, 2014, pg. 107.</ref> To ignite the wood, kindling wood is put up to the top of the the chimney. Then, hot coals are dropped into the chimney and the opening is covered with a piece called the "bridgen." The bridgen is then covered with leaves and straw.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 2.</ref>

==Ending the Burn==
The burn was ended before all the charcoal was finished burning because this helped Colliers maximize production.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 4.</ref>

==Removing the Charcoal==
To remove the finished charcoal, colliers used a large rake with long times. The tines ensure that the pieces of charcoal are dragged through the dirt on their way out of the hearth. This makes sure that no fires flare up and destroy the charcoal.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 4.</ref>

==Sustainability==
The need for charcoal in the iron industry created a significant demand for wood and a great deal of trees were chopped down for its production. The average output of furnaces between 1750 and 1800 was 100 5o 400 tons of pig iron per year. This required 200 - 400 bushels of charcoal and 50 acres of trees to produce that amount. <ref>Straka 2014, p. 105.</ref> Even though the increased efficiency of furnaces decreased the necessary amount of charcoal, increased production required 150 acres of wood by 1850 and 1,400 acres by 1900. <ref>Straka 2014, pg. 106.</ref>

Several early proponents of sustainable forestry were involved in the making of charcoal, like Bernhard E. Fernow, the manager of the Lehigh Furnace from 1879 to 1883. He advocated for coppicing of wood and protection from fire and cattle grazing to speed up regrowth of forest used for charcoal.

==Charcoal v. Coal==
The transition to coal as the primary fuel for furnaces began around 1840, but in 1859 around three-quarters of furnaces in America (particularly in Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York) still primarily used charcoal. Charcoal remained a source of fuel in some places until 1945.

Charcoal tended to produce a higher quality of iron than coal, partially because of its density. Iron made from charcoal had a "fine grain" compared to iron made by coal and maintained a better
cutting edge.

==Collier Life==
The public's general impression of Colliers was that they were dirty and uncivilized. The collier profession, though, was not one for the faint of heart, as great skill was required in order to successfully maintain multiple charcoal hearths at one time for months on end. <ref>Straka and Wayne 2010, p. 60</ref>Living alone, or occasionally with a son or friend, colliers couldn't afford to lose concentration or dedication for even one moment, as the slightest wayward breeze or hole in the charcoal hearth could cause irreparable damage. This profession required almost constant twenty-four-hour surveillance of the hearths. The most dangerous job of a collier was called "jumping the pit."This crucial job required a collier to climb up onto the hearth and pack down the dirt as best they could. If anything went awry, they risked falling into the smoldering charcoal fire. Colliers resided in huts laid out in a circle and framed by wood, insulated later on with mud, leaves, and dirt. There was oftentimes a large stone hearth or fireplace in the corner used for cooking and heating.

==Notes==
<references />

==References==
* "Agriculture andrRural economy – Charcoal → ." The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project. Ann Arbor: Michigan Publishing, University of Michigan Library, 2010. http://hdl.handle.net/2027/spo.did2222.0001.346 (accessed [fill in today's date in the form April 18, 2009 and remove square brackets]). Originally published as "Agriculture et économie rustique – Charbon de bois," Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, vol. 1 (plates) (Paris, 1762).

* Jones, Claude A. 1976. “Making Charcoal at Jacobsburg.” In Slate Belt Bicentennial Heritage, edited by Marjorie May, Maryann Repsher, Robert R. Saltern, Gordon E. Wilson, and Albert M. Toth, 32–33. Heritage Committee of the Slate Belt Bicentennial Commission.

* Straka, Thomas J., and Wayne C. Ramer. 2010. “History on the Road: Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site.” Forest History Today Spring/Fall: 58–62. https://foresthistory.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/2010_History-on-Road.pdf

* Wagner, Van. 2008. Fire the Pit- Charcoal Production in Pennsylvania. 4 vols. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RxW7g3IwD1k ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xVE_7hMLMZU ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=88FbebFElaY ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ghj2p9rrUmM.

Charcoal production

2018-09-09T17:20:26Z

Michaelaf: /* Igniting the Wood */

In nineteenth century Pennsylvania, charcoal was produced primarily to fuel [[iron production]]. Charcoal is the result of the destructive distillation of wood to yield a fuel that is primarily carbon. In the 19th century, when iron production was at its peak, the demand for charcoal as fuel for furnaces had an impact on forests. As a result, the charcoal industry was one of the first to think about sustainability and forestry.

==Types of Wood==
While most types of wood can become charcoal, hard woods generally produced the best charcoal. Trees like oak, hickory, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chestnut chestnut], and elm were greatly preferred to softer woods, like gum and poplar.
However, heavier hardwood requires a longer burning so sometimes a mixture of hardwood and softwood was the most effective. The condition of wood was important to the quality of the charcoal output. Knots in the wood, decay, and moisture negatively impact carbonization. ==Sustainability==
The need for charcoal in the iron industry created a significant demand for wood and a great deal of trees were chopped down for its production. The average output of furnaces between 1750 and 1800 was 100 5o 400 tons of pig iron per year. This required 200 - 400 bushels of charcoal and 50 acres of trees to produce that amount. <ref>Straka and Ramer 2014, p. 105.</ref> Even though the increased efficiency of furnaces decreased the necessary amount of charcoal, increased production required 150 acres of wood by 1850 and 1,400 acres by 1900. <ref>Straka and Ramer 2014, pg. 106.</ref>

==Making the Hearth==
Charcoal hearths require a large flat area.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref> They are often placed on hillsides to facilitate dirt movement and are usually round. In the center of the hearth, a triangular chimney is made from stacked wood. In the chimney, a large stick called the Fagan pole is inserted. The Fagan pole is used to mark the center of the pit and can be also be removed to provide drought during the process.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref>

==Piling the Wood==
After making the chimney and the pole, the collier leans pieces of hardwood around the chimney. Hardwood was the preferred type of wood to use in charcoal production because it was denser and therefore more conducive to the iron-making process.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 59.</ref>

==Covering the Wood==
The wood in the hearth is first covered with a layer of leaves or straw. Then, that is covered with dirt. The leaves act as a barrier between the wood and the dirt, helping to ensure even charring of the wood.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref>

==Igniting the Wood==
Charcoal hearths were likely lit at the top and burned downwards. <ref>Straka, 2014, pg. 107.</ref> To ignite the wood, kindling wood is put up to the top of the the chimney. Then, hot coals are dropped into the chimney and the opening is covered with a piece called the "bridgen." The bridgen is then covered with leaves and straw.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 2.</ref>

==Ending the Burn==
The burn was ended before all the charcoal was finished burning because this helped Colliers maximize production.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 4.</ref>

==Removing the Charcoal==
To remove the finished charcoal, colliers used a large rake with long times. The tines ensure that the pieces of charcoal are dragged through the dirt on their way out of the hearth. This makes sure that no fires flare up and destroy the charcoal.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 4.</ref>

==Sustainability==
The need for charcoal in the iron industry created a significant demand for wood and a great deal of trees were chopped down for its production. The average output of furnaces between 1750 and 1800 was 100 5o 400 tons of pig iron per year. This required 200 - 400 bushels of charcoal and 50 acres of trees to produce that amount. <ref>Straka and Ramer 2014, p. 105.</ref> Even though the increased efficiency of furnaces decreased the necessary amount of charcoal, increased production required 150 acres of wood by 1850 and 1,400 acres by 1900. <ref>Straka and Ramer 2014, pg. 106.</ref>

Several early proponents of sustainable forestry were involved in the making of charcoal, like Bernhard E. Fernow, the manager of the Lehigh Furnace from 1879 to 1883. He advocated for coppicing of wood and protection from fire and cattle grazing to speed up regrowth of forest used for charcoal.

==Charcoal v. Coal==
The transition to coal as the primary fuel for furnaces began around 1840, but in 1859 around three-quarters of furnaces in America (particularly in Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York) still primarily used charcoal. Charcoal remained a source of fuel in some places until 1945.

Charcoal tended to produce a higher quality of iron than coal, partially because of its density. Iron made from charcoal had a "fine grain" compared to iron made by coal and maintained a better
cutting edge.

==Collier Life==
The public's general impression of Colliers was that they were dirty and uncivilized. The collier profession, though, was not one for the faint of heart, as great skill was required in order to successfully maintain multiple charcoal hearths at one time for months on end. Living alone, or occasionally with a son or friend, colliers couldn't afford to lose concentration or dedication for even one moment, as the slightest wayward breeze or hole in the charcoal hearth could cause irreparable damage. This profession required almost constant twenty-four-hour surveillance of the hearths. The most dangerous job of a collier was called "jumping the pit."This crucial job required a collier to climb up onto the hearth and pack down the dirt as best they could. If anything went awry, they risked falling into the smoldering charcoal fire. Colliers resided in huts laid out in a circle and framed by wood, insulated later on with mud, leaves, and dirt. There was oftentimes a large stone hearth or fireplace in the corner used for cooking and heating.

==Notes==
<references />

==References==
* "Agriculture andrRural economy – Charcoal → ." The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project. Ann Arbor: Michigan Publishing, University of Michigan Library, 2010. http://hdl.handle.net/2027/spo.did2222.0001.346 (accessed [fill in today's date in the form April 18, 2009 and remove square brackets]). Originally published as "Agriculture et économie rustique – Charbon de bois," Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, vol. 1 (plates) (Paris, 1762).

* Jones, Claude A. 1976. “Making Charcoal at Jacobsburg.” In Slate Belt Bicentennial Heritage, edited by Marjorie May, Maryann Repsher, Robert R. Saltern, Gordon E. Wilson, and Albert M. Toth, 32–33. Heritage Committee of the Slate Belt Bicentennial Commission.

* Straka, Thomas J., and Wayne C. Ramer. 2010. “History on the Road: Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site.” Forest History Today Spring/Fall: 58–62. https://foresthistory.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/2010_History-on-Road.pdf

* Wagner, Van. 2008. Fire the Pit- Charcoal Production in Pennsylvania. 4 vols. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RxW7g3IwD1k ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xVE_7hMLMZU ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=88FbebFElaY ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ghj2p9rrUmM.

Charcoal production

2018-09-09T17:17:46Z

Michaelaf: /* Types of Wood */

In nineteenth century Pennsylvania, charcoal was produced primarily to fuel [[iron production]]. Charcoal is the result of the destructive distillation of wood to yield a fuel that is primarily carbon. In the 19th century, when iron production was at its peak, the demand for charcoal as fuel for furnaces had an impact on forests. As a result, the charcoal industry was one of the first to think about sustainability and forestry.

==Types of Wood==
While most types of wood can become charcoal, hard woods generally produced the best charcoal. Trees like oak, hickory, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chestnut chestnut], and elm were greatly preferred to softer woods, like gum and poplar.
However, heavier hardwood requires a longer burning so sometimes a mixture of hardwood and softwood was the most effective. The condition of wood was important to the quality of the charcoal output. Knots in the wood, decay, and moisture negatively impact carbonization. ==Sustainability==
The need for charcoal in the iron industry created a significant demand for wood and a great deal of trees were chopped down for its production. The average output of furnaces between 1750 and 1800 was 100 5o 400 tons of pig iron per year. This required 200 - 400 bushels of charcoal and 50 acres of trees to produce that amount. <ref>Straka and Ramer 2014, p. 105.</ref> Even though the increased efficiency of furnaces decreased the necessary amount of charcoal, increased production required 150 acres of wood by 1850 and 1,400 acres by 1900. <ref>Straka and Ramer 2014, pg. 106.</ref>

==Making the Hearth==
Charcoal hearths require a large flat area.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref> They are often placed on hillsides to facilitate dirt movement and are usually round. In the center of the hearth, a triangular chimney is made from stacked wood. In the chimney, a large stick called the Fagan pole is inserted. The Fagan pole is used to mark the center of the pit and can be also be removed to provide drought during the process.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref>

==Piling the Wood==
After making the chimney and the pole, the collier leans pieces of hardwood around the chimney. Hardwood was the preferred type of wood to use in charcoal production because it was denser and therefore more conducive to the iron-making process.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 59.</ref>

==Covering the Wood==
The wood in the hearth is first covered with a layer of leaves or straw. Then, that is covered with dirt. The leaves act as a barrier between the wood and the dirt, helping to ensure even charring of the wood.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref>

==Igniting the Wood==
To ignite the wood, kindling wood is put up to the top of the the chimney. Then, hot coals are dropped into the chimney and the opening is covered with a piece called the "bridgen." The bridgen is then covered with leaves and straw.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 2.</ref>

==Ending the Burn==
The burn was ended before all the charcoal was finished burning because this helped Colliers maximize production.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 4.</ref>

==Removing the Charcoal==
To remove the finished charcoal, colliers used a large rake with long times. The tines ensure that the pieces of charcoal are dragged through the dirt on their way out of the hearth. This makes sure that no fires flare up and destroy the charcoal.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 4.</ref>

==Sustainability==
The need for charcoal in the iron industry created a significant demand for wood and a great deal of trees were chopped down for its production. The average output of furnaces between 1750 and 1800 was 100 5o 400 tons of pig iron per year. This required 200 - 400 bushels of charcoal and 50 acres of trees to produce that amount. <ref>Straka and Ramer 2014, p. 105.</ref> Even though the increased efficiency of furnaces decreased the necessary amount of charcoal, increased production required 150 acres of wood by 1850 and 1,400 acres by 1900. <ref>Straka and Ramer 2014, pg. 106.</ref>

Several early proponents of sustainable forestry were involved in the making of charcoal, like Bernhard E. Fernow, the manager of the Lehigh Furnace from 1879 to 1883. He advocated for coppicing of wood and protection from fire and cattle grazing to speed up regrowth of forest used for charcoal.

==Charcoal v. Coal==
The transition to coal as the primary fuel for furnaces began around 1840, but in 1859 around three-quarters of furnaces in America (particularly in Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York) still primarily used charcoal. Charcoal remained a source of fuel in some places until 1945.

Charcoal tended to produce a higher quality of iron than coal, partially because of its density. Iron made from charcoal had a "fine grain" compared to iron made by coal and maintained a better
cutting edge.

==Collier Life==
The public's general impression of Colliers was that they were dirty and uncivilized. The collier profession, though, was not one for the faint of heart, as great skill was required in order to successfully maintain multiple charcoal hearths at one time for months on end. Living alone, or occasionally with a son or friend, colliers couldn't afford to lose concentration or dedication for even one moment, as the slightest wayward breeze or hole in the charcoal hearth could cause irreparable damage. This profession required almost constant twenty-four-hour surveillance of the hearths. The most dangerous job of a collier was called "jumping the pit."This crucial job required a collier to climb up onto the hearth and pack down the dirt as best they could. If anything went awry, they risked falling into the smoldering charcoal fire. Colliers resided in huts laid out in a circle and framed by wood, insulated later on with mud, leaves, and dirt. There was oftentimes a large stone hearth or fireplace in the corner used for cooking and heating.

==Notes==
<references />

==References==
* "Agriculture andrRural economy – Charcoal → ." The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project. Ann Arbor: Michigan Publishing, University of Michigan Library, 2010. http://hdl.handle.net/2027/spo.did2222.0001.346 (accessed [fill in today's date in the form April 18, 2009 and remove square brackets]). Originally published as "Agriculture et économie rustique – Charbon de bois," Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, vol. 1 (plates) (Paris, 1762).

* Jones, Claude A. 1976. “Making Charcoal at Jacobsburg.” In Slate Belt Bicentennial Heritage, edited by Marjorie May, Maryann Repsher, Robert R. Saltern, Gordon E. Wilson, and Albert M. Toth, 32–33. Heritage Committee of the Slate Belt Bicentennial Commission.

* Straka, Thomas J., and Wayne C. Ramer. 2010. “History on the Road: Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site.” Forest History Today Spring/Fall: 58–62. https://foresthistory.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/2010_History-on-Road.pdf

* Wagner, Van. 2008. Fire the Pit- Charcoal Production in Pennsylvania. 4 vols. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RxW7g3IwD1k ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xVE_7hMLMZU ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=88FbebFElaY ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ghj2p9rrUmM.

Charcoal production

2018-09-09T17:11:30Z

Michaelaf: /* Sustainability */

In nineteenth century Pennsylvania, charcoal was produced primarily to fuel [[iron production]]. Charcoal is the result of the destructive distillation of wood to yield a fuel that is primarily carbon. In the 19th century, when iron production was at its peak, the demand for charcoal as fuel for furnaces had an impact on forests. As a result, the charcoal industry was one of the first to think about sustainability and forestry.

==Types of Wood==
Generally, hard woods produced the best charcoal. Trees like oak, hickory, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chestnut chestnut], and elm were greatly preferred to softer woods, like gum and poplar.

==Making the Hearth==
Charcoal hearths require a large flat area.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref> They are often placed on hillsides to facilitate dirt movement and are usually round. In the center of the hearth, a triangular chimney is made from stacked wood. In the chimney, a large stick called the Fagan pole is inserted. The Fagan pole is used to mark the center of the pit and can be also be removed to provide drought during the process.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref>

==Piling the Wood==
After making the chimney and the pole, the collier leans pieces of hardwood around the chimney. Hardwood was the preferred type of wood to use in charcoal production because it was denser and therefore more conducive to the iron-making process.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 59.</ref>

==Covering the Wood==
The wood in the hearth is first covered with a layer of leaves or straw. Then, that is covered with dirt. The leaves act as a barrier between the wood and the dirt, helping to ensure even charring of the wood.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref>

==Igniting the Wood==
To ignite the wood, kindling wood is put up to the top of the the chimney. Then, hot coals are dropped into the chimney and the opening is covered with a piece called the "bridgen." The bridgen is then covered with leaves and straw.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 2.</ref>

==Ending the Burn==
The burn was ended before all the charcoal was finished burning because this helped Colliers maximize production.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 4.</ref>

==Removing the Charcoal==
To remove the finished charcoal, colliers used a large rake with long times. The tines ensure that the pieces of charcoal are dragged through the dirt on their way out of the hearth. This makes sure that no fires flare up and destroy the charcoal.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 4.</ref>

==Sustainability==
The need for charcoal in the iron industry created a significant demand for wood and a great deal of trees were chopped down for its production. The average output of furnaces between 1750 and 1800 was 100 5o 400 tons of pig iron per year. This required 200 - 400 bushels of charcoal and 50 acres of trees to produce that amount. <ref>Straka and Ramer 2014, p. 105.</ref> Even though the increased efficiency of furnaces decreased the necessary amount of charcoal, increased production required 150 acres of wood by 1850 and 1,400 acres by 1900. <ref>Straka and Ramer 2014, pg. 106.</ref>

Several early proponents of sustainable forestry were involved in the making of charcoal, like Bernhard E. Fernow, the manager of the Lehigh Furnace from 1879 to 1883. He advocated for coppicing of wood and protection from fire and cattle grazing to speed up regrowth of forest used for charcoal.

==Charcoal v. Coal==
The transition to coal as the primary fuel for furnaces began around 1840, but in 1859 around three-quarters of furnaces in America (particularly in Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York) still primarily used charcoal. Charcoal remained a source of fuel in some places until 1945.

Charcoal tended to produce a higher quality of iron than coal, partially because of its density. Iron made from charcoal had a "fine grain" compared to iron made by coal and maintained a better
cutting edge.

==Collier Life==
The public's general impression of Colliers was that they were dirty and uncivilized. The collier profession, though, was not one for the faint of heart, as great skill was required in order to successfully maintain multiple charcoal hearths at one time for months on end. Living alone, or occasionally with a son or friend, colliers couldn't afford to lose concentration or dedication for even one moment, as the slightest wayward breeze or hole in the charcoal hearth could cause irreparable damage. This profession required almost constant twenty-four-hour surveillance of the hearths. The most dangerous job of a collier was called "jumping the pit."This crucial job required a collier to climb up onto the hearth and pack down the dirt as best they could. If anything went awry, they risked falling into the smoldering charcoal fire. Colliers resided in huts laid out in a circle and framed by wood, insulated later on with mud, leaves, and dirt. There was oftentimes a large stone hearth or fireplace in the corner used for cooking and heating.

==Notes==
<references />

==References==
* "Agriculture andrRural economy – Charcoal → ." The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project. Ann Arbor: Michigan Publishing, University of Michigan Library, 2010. http://hdl.handle.net/2027/spo.did2222.0001.346 (accessed [fill in today's date in the form April 18, 2009 and remove square brackets]). Originally published as "Agriculture et économie rustique – Charbon de bois," Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, vol. 1 (plates) (Paris, 1762).

* Jones, Claude A. 1976. “Making Charcoal at Jacobsburg.” In Slate Belt Bicentennial Heritage, edited by Marjorie May, Maryann Repsher, Robert R. Saltern, Gordon E. Wilson, and Albert M. Toth, 32–33. Heritage Committee of the Slate Belt Bicentennial Commission.

* Straka, Thomas J., and Wayne C. Ramer. 2010. “History on the Road: Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site.” Forest History Today Spring/Fall: 58–62. https://foresthistory.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/2010_History-on-Road.pdf

* Wagner, Van. 2008. Fire the Pit- Charcoal Production in Pennsylvania. 4 vols. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RxW7g3IwD1k ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xVE_7hMLMZU ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=88FbebFElaY ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ghj2p9rrUmM.

Charcoal production

2018-09-08T22:04:05Z

Michaelaf: /* Ending the Burn */

In nineteenth century Pennsylvania, charcoal was produced primarily to fuel [[iron production]]. Charcoal is the result of the destructive distillation of wood to yield a fuel that is primarily carbon. In the 19th century, when iron production was at its peak, the demand for charcoal as fuel for furnaces had an impact on forests. As a result, the charcoal industry was one of the first to think about sustainability and forestry.

==Types of Wood==
Generally, hard woods produced the best charcoal. Trees like oak, hickory, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chestnut chestnut], and elm were greatly preferred to softer woods, like gum and poplar.

==Making the Hearth==
Charcoal hearths require a large flat area.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref> They are often placed on hillsides to facilitate dirt movement and are usually round. In the center of the hearth, a triangular chimney is made from stacked wood. In the chimney, a large stick called the Fagan pole is inserted. The Fagan pole is used to mark the center of the pit and can be also be removed to provide drought during the process.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref>

==Piling the Wood==
After making the chimney and the pole, the collier leans pieces of hardwood around the chimney. Hardwood was the preferred type of wood to use in charcoal production because it was denser and therefore more conducive to the iron-making process.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 59.</ref>

==Covering the Wood==
The wood in the hearth is first covered with a layer of leaves or straw. Then, that is covered with dirt. The leaves act as a barrier between the wood and the dirt, helping to ensure even charring of the wood.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref>

==Igniting the Wood==
To ignite the wood, kindling wood is put up to the top of the the chimney. Then, hot coals are dropped into the chimney and the opening is covered with a piece called the "bridgen." The bridgen is then covered with leaves and straw.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 2.</ref>

==Ending the Burn==
The burn was ended before all the charcoal was finished burning because this helped Colliers maximize production.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 4.</ref>

==Removing the Charcoal==
To remove the finished charcoal, colliers used a large rake with long times. The tines ensure that the pieces of charcoal are dragged through the dirt on their way out of the hearth. This makes sure that no fires flare up and destroy the charcoal.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 4.</ref>

==Sustainability==
The need for charcoal in the iron industry created a significant demand for wood and a great deal of trees were chopped down for its production. One furnace required about 5,000 cords of wood to run in a year. Several early proponents of sustainable forestry were involved in the making of charcoal, like Bernhard E. Fernow, the manager of the Lehigh Furnace from 1879 to 1883. He advocated for coppicing of wood and protection from fire and cattle grazing to speed up regrowth of forest used for charcoal.

==Charcoal v. Coal==
The transition to coal as the primary fuel for furnaces began around 1840, but in 1859 around three-quarters of furnaces in America (particularly in Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York) still primarily used charcoal. Charcoal remained a source of fuel in some places until 1945.

Charcoal tended to produce a higher quality of iron than coal, partially because of its density. Iron made from charcoal had a "fine grain" compared to iron made by coal and maintained a better
cutting edge.

==Collier Life==
The public's general impression of Colliers was that they were dirty and uncivilized. The collier profession, though, was not one for the faint of heart, as great skill was required in order to successfully maintain multiple charcoal hearths at one time for months on end. Living alone, or occasionally with a son or friend, colliers couldn't afford to lose concentration or dedication for even one moment, as the slightest wayward breeze or hole in the charcoal hearth could cause irreparable damage. This profession required almost constant twenty-four-hour surveillance of the hearths. The most dangerous job of a collier was called "jumping the pit."This crucial job required a collier to climb up onto the hearth and pack down the dirt as best they could. If anything went awry, they risked falling into the smoldering charcoal fire. Colliers resided in huts laid out in a circle and framed by wood, insulated later on with mud, leaves, and dirt. There was oftentimes a large stone hearth or fireplace in the corner used for cooking and heating.

==Notes==
<references />

==References==
* "Agriculture andrRural economy – Charcoal → ." The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project. Ann Arbor: Michigan Publishing, University of Michigan Library, 2010. http://hdl.handle.net/2027/spo.did2222.0001.346 (accessed [fill in today's date in the form April 18, 2009 and remove square brackets]). Originally published as "Agriculture et économie rustique – Charbon de bois," Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, vol. 1 (plates) (Paris, 1762).

* Jones, Claude A. 1976. “Making Charcoal at Jacobsburg.” In Slate Belt Bicentennial Heritage, edited by Marjorie May, Maryann Repsher, Robert R. Saltern, Gordon E. Wilson, and Albert M. Toth, 32–33. Heritage Committee of the Slate Belt Bicentennial Commission.

* Straka, Thomas J., and Wayne C. Ramer. 2010. “History on the Road: Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site.” Forest History Today Spring/Fall: 58–62. https://foresthistory.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/2010_History-on-Road.pdf

* Wagner, Van. 2008. Fire the Pit- Charcoal Production in Pennsylvania. 4 vols. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RxW7g3IwD1k ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xVE_7hMLMZU ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=88FbebFElaY ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ghj2p9rrUmM.

Charcoal production

2018-09-08T22:03:10Z

Michaelaf: /* Removing the Charcoal */

In nineteenth century Pennsylvania, charcoal was produced primarily to fuel [[iron production]]. Charcoal is the result of the destructive distillation of wood to yield a fuel that is primarily carbon. In the 19th century, when iron production was at its peak, the demand for charcoal as fuel for furnaces had an impact on forests. As a result, the charcoal industry was one of the first to think about sustainability and forestry.

==Types of Wood==
Generally, hard woods produced the best charcoal. Trees like oak, hickory, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chestnut chestnut], and elm were greatly preferred to softer woods, like gum and poplar.

==Making the Hearth==
Charcoal hearths require a large flat area.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref> They are often placed on hillsides to facilitate dirt movement and are usually round. In the center of the hearth, a triangular chimney is made from stacked wood. In the chimney, a large stick called the Fagan pole is inserted. The Fagan pole is used to mark the center of the pit and can be also be removed to provide drought during the process.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref>

==Piling the Wood==
After making the chimney and the pole, the collier leans pieces of hardwood around the chimney. Hardwood was the preferred type of wood to use in charcoal production because it was denser and therefore more conducive to the iron-making process.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 59.</ref>

==Covering the Wood==
The wood in the hearth is first covered with a layer of leaves or straw. Then, that is covered with dirt. The leaves act as a barrier between the wood and the dirt, helping to ensure even charring of the wood.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref>

==Igniting the Wood==
To ignite the wood, kindling wood is put up to the top of the the chimney. Then, hot coals are dropped into the chimney and the opening is covered with a piece called the "bridgen." The bridgen is then covered with leaves and straw.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 2.</ref>

==Ending the Burn==
The burn was ended before all the charcoal was finished burning because this helped Colliers maximize production.

==Removing the Charcoal==
To remove the finished charcoal, colliers used a large rake with long times. The tines ensure that the pieces of charcoal are dragged through the dirt on their way out of the hearth. This makes sure that no fires flare up and destroy the charcoal.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 4.</ref>

==Sustainability==
The need for charcoal in the iron industry created a significant demand for wood and a great deal of trees were chopped down for its production. One furnace required about 5,000 cords of wood to run in a year. Several early proponents of sustainable forestry were involved in the making of charcoal, like Bernhard E. Fernow, the manager of the Lehigh Furnace from 1879 to 1883. He advocated for coppicing of wood and protection from fire and cattle grazing to speed up regrowth of forest used for charcoal.

==Charcoal v. Coal==
The transition to coal as the primary fuel for furnaces began around 1840, but in 1859 around three-quarters of furnaces in America (particularly in Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York) still primarily used charcoal. Charcoal remained a source of fuel in some places until 1945.

Charcoal tended to produce a higher quality of iron than coal, partially because of its density. Iron made from charcoal had a "fine grain" compared to iron made by coal and maintained a better
cutting edge.

==Collier Life==
The public's general impression of Colliers was that they were dirty and uncivilized. The collier profession, though, was not one for the faint of heart, as great skill was required in order to successfully maintain multiple charcoal hearths at one time for months on end. Living alone, or occasionally with a son or friend, colliers couldn't afford to lose concentration or dedication for even one moment, as the slightest wayward breeze or hole in the charcoal hearth could cause irreparable damage. This profession required almost constant twenty-four-hour surveillance of the hearths. The most dangerous job of a collier was called "jumping the pit."This crucial job required a collier to climb up onto the hearth and pack down the dirt as best they could. If anything went awry, they risked falling into the smoldering charcoal fire. Colliers resided in huts laid out in a circle and framed by wood, insulated later on with mud, leaves, and dirt. There was oftentimes a large stone hearth or fireplace in the corner used for cooking and heating.

==Notes==
<references />

==References==
* "Agriculture andrRural economy – Charcoal → ." The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project. Ann Arbor: Michigan Publishing, University of Michigan Library, 2010. http://hdl.handle.net/2027/spo.did2222.0001.346 (accessed [fill in today's date in the form April 18, 2009 and remove square brackets]). Originally published as "Agriculture et économie rustique – Charbon de bois," Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, vol. 1 (plates) (Paris, 1762).

* Jones, Claude A. 1976. “Making Charcoal at Jacobsburg.” In Slate Belt Bicentennial Heritage, edited by Marjorie May, Maryann Repsher, Robert R. Saltern, Gordon E. Wilson, and Albert M. Toth, 32–33. Heritage Committee of the Slate Belt Bicentennial Commission.

* Straka, Thomas J., and Wayne C. Ramer. 2010. “History on the Road: Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site.” Forest History Today Spring/Fall: 58–62. https://foresthistory.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/2010_History-on-Road.pdf

* Wagner, Van. 2008. Fire the Pit- Charcoal Production in Pennsylvania. 4 vols. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RxW7g3IwD1k ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xVE_7hMLMZU ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=88FbebFElaY ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ghj2p9rrUmM.

Charcoal production

2018-09-08T22:02:54Z

Michaelaf: /* Igniting the Wood */

In nineteenth century Pennsylvania, charcoal was produced primarily to fuel [[iron production]]. Charcoal is the result of the destructive distillation of wood to yield a fuel that is primarily carbon. In the 19th century, when iron production was at its peak, the demand for charcoal as fuel for furnaces had an impact on forests. As a result, the charcoal industry was one of the first to think about sustainability and forestry.

==Types of Wood==
Generally, hard woods produced the best charcoal. Trees like oak, hickory, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chestnut chestnut], and elm were greatly preferred to softer woods, like gum and poplar.

==Making the Hearth==
Charcoal hearths require a large flat area.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref> They are often placed on hillsides to facilitate dirt movement and are usually round. In the center of the hearth, a triangular chimney is made from stacked wood. In the chimney, a large stick called the Fagan pole is inserted. The Fagan pole is used to mark the center of the pit and can be also be removed to provide drought during the process.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref>

==Piling the Wood==
After making the chimney and the pole, the collier leans pieces of hardwood around the chimney. Hardwood was the preferred type of wood to use in charcoal production because it was denser and therefore more conducive to the iron-making process.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 59.</ref>

==Covering the Wood==
The wood in the hearth is first covered with a layer of leaves or straw. Then, that is covered with dirt. The leaves act as a barrier between the wood and the dirt, helping to ensure even charring of the wood.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref>

==Igniting the Wood==
To ignite the wood, kindling wood is put up to the top of the the chimney. Then, hot coals are dropped into the chimney and the opening is covered with a piece called the "bridgen." The bridgen is then covered with leaves and straw.<ref>Wagner, 2008, Vol. 2.</ref>

==Ending the Burn==
The burn was ended before all the charcoal was finished burning because this helped Colliers maximize production.

==Removing the Charcoal==
To remove the finished charcoal, colliers used a large rake with long times. The tines ensure that the pieces of charcoal are dragged through the dirt on their way out of the hearth. This makes sure that no fires flare up and destroy the charcoal.

==Sustainability==
The need for charcoal in the iron industry created a significant demand for wood and a great deal of trees were chopped down for its production. One furnace required about 5,000 cords of wood to run in a year. Several early proponents of sustainable forestry were involved in the making of charcoal, like Bernhard E. Fernow, the manager of the Lehigh Furnace from 1879 to 1883. He advocated for coppicing of wood and protection from fire and cattle grazing to speed up regrowth of forest used for charcoal.

==Charcoal v. Coal==
The transition to coal as the primary fuel for furnaces began around 1840, but in 1859 around three-quarters of furnaces in America (particularly in Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York) still primarily used charcoal. Charcoal remained a source of fuel in some places until 1945.

Charcoal tended to produce a higher quality of iron than coal, partially because of its density. Iron made from charcoal had a "fine grain" compared to iron made by coal and maintained a better
cutting edge.

==Collier Life==
The public's general impression of Colliers was that they were dirty and uncivilized. The collier profession, though, was not one for the faint of heart, as great skill was required in order to successfully maintain multiple charcoal hearths at one time for months on end. Living alone, or occasionally with a son or friend, colliers couldn't afford to lose concentration or dedication for even one moment, as the slightest wayward breeze or hole in the charcoal hearth could cause irreparable damage. This profession required almost constant twenty-four-hour surveillance of the hearths. The most dangerous job of a collier was called "jumping the pit."This crucial job required a collier to climb up onto the hearth and pack down the dirt as best they could. If anything went awry, they risked falling into the smoldering charcoal fire. Colliers resided in huts laid out in a circle and framed by wood, insulated later on with mud, leaves, and dirt. There was oftentimes a large stone hearth or fireplace in the corner used for cooking and heating.

==Notes==
<references />

==References==
* "Agriculture andrRural economy – Charcoal → ." The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project. Ann Arbor: Michigan Publishing, University of Michigan Library, 2010. http://hdl.handle.net/2027/spo.did2222.0001.346 (accessed [fill in today's date in the form April 18, 2009 and remove square brackets]). Originally published as "Agriculture et économie rustique – Charbon de bois," Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, vol. 1 (plates) (Paris, 1762).

* Jones, Claude A. 1976. “Making Charcoal at Jacobsburg.” In Slate Belt Bicentennial Heritage, edited by Marjorie May, Maryann Repsher, Robert R. Saltern, Gordon E. Wilson, and Albert M. Toth, 32–33. Heritage Committee of the Slate Belt Bicentennial Commission.

* Straka, Thomas J., and Wayne C. Ramer. 2010. “History on the Road: Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site.” Forest History Today Spring/Fall: 58–62. https://foresthistory.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/2010_History-on-Road.pdf

* Wagner, Van. 2008. Fire the Pit- Charcoal Production in Pennsylvania. 4 vols. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RxW7g3IwD1k ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xVE_7hMLMZU ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=88FbebFElaY ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ghj2p9rrUmM.

Charcoal production

2018-09-08T22:02:32Z

Michaelaf: /* Igniting the Wood */

In nineteenth century Pennsylvania, charcoal was produced primarily to fuel [[iron production]]. Charcoal is the result of the destructive distillation of wood to yield a fuel that is primarily carbon. In the 19th century, when iron production was at its peak, the demand for charcoal as fuel for furnaces had an impact on forests. As a result, the charcoal industry was one of the first to think about sustainability and forestry.

==Types of Wood==
Generally, hard woods produced the best charcoal. Trees like oak, hickory, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chestnut chestnut], and elm were greatly preferred to softer woods, like gum and poplar.

==Making the Hearth==
Charcoal hearths require a large flat area.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref> They are often placed on hillsides to facilitate dirt movement and are usually round. In the center of the hearth, a triangular chimney is made from stacked wood. In the chimney, a large stick called the Fagan pole is inserted. The Fagan pole is used to mark the center of the pit and can be also be removed to provide drought during the process.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref>

==Piling the Wood==
After making the chimney and the pole, the collier leans pieces of hardwood around the chimney. Hardwood was the preferred type of wood to use in charcoal production because it was denser and therefore more conducive to the iron-making process.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 59.</ref>

==Covering the Wood==
The wood in the hearth is first covered with a layer of leaves or straw. Then, that is covered with dirt. The leaves act as a barrier between the wood and the dirt, helping to ensure even charring of the wood.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref>

==Igniting the Wood==
To ignite the wood, kindling wood is put up to the top of the the chimney. Then, hot coals are dropped into the chimney and the opening is covered with a piece called the "bridgen." The bridgen is then covered with leaves and straw.<ref>Wagner, Vol. 2.</ref>

==Ending the Burn==
The burn was ended before all the charcoal was finished burning because this helped Colliers maximize production.

==Removing the Charcoal==
To remove the finished charcoal, colliers used a large rake with long times. The tines ensure that the pieces of charcoal are dragged through the dirt on their way out of the hearth. This makes sure that no fires flare up and destroy the charcoal.

==Sustainability==
The need for charcoal in the iron industry created a significant demand for wood and a great deal of trees were chopped down for its production. One furnace required about 5,000 cords of wood to run in a year. Several early proponents of sustainable forestry were involved in the making of charcoal, like Bernhard E. Fernow, the manager of the Lehigh Furnace from 1879 to 1883. He advocated for coppicing of wood and protection from fire and cattle grazing to speed up regrowth of forest used for charcoal.

==Charcoal v. Coal==
The transition to coal as the primary fuel for furnaces began around 1840, but in 1859 around three-quarters of furnaces in America (particularly in Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York) still primarily used charcoal. Charcoal remained a source of fuel in some places until 1945.

Charcoal tended to produce a higher quality of iron than coal, partially because of its density. Iron made from charcoal had a "fine grain" compared to iron made by coal and maintained a better
cutting edge.

==Collier Life==
The public's general impression of Colliers was that they were dirty and uncivilized. The collier profession, though, was not one for the faint of heart, as great skill was required in order to successfully maintain multiple charcoal hearths at one time for months on end. Living alone, or occasionally with a son or friend, colliers couldn't afford to lose concentration or dedication for even one moment, as the slightest wayward breeze or hole in the charcoal hearth could cause irreparable damage. This profession required almost constant twenty-four-hour surveillance of the hearths. The most dangerous job of a collier was called "jumping the pit."This crucial job required a collier to climb up onto the hearth and pack down the dirt as best they could. If anything went awry, they risked falling into the smoldering charcoal fire. Colliers resided in huts laid out in a circle and framed by wood, insulated later on with mud, leaves, and dirt. There was oftentimes a large stone hearth or fireplace in the corner used for cooking and heating.

==Notes==
<references />

==References==
* "Agriculture andrRural economy – Charcoal → ." The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project. Ann Arbor: Michigan Publishing, University of Michigan Library, 2010. http://hdl.handle.net/2027/spo.did2222.0001.346 (accessed [fill in today's date in the form April 18, 2009 and remove square brackets]). Originally published as "Agriculture et économie rustique – Charbon de bois," Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, vol. 1 (plates) (Paris, 1762).

* Jones, Claude A. 1976. “Making Charcoal at Jacobsburg.” In Slate Belt Bicentennial Heritage, edited by Marjorie May, Maryann Repsher, Robert R. Saltern, Gordon E. Wilson, and Albert M. Toth, 32–33. Heritage Committee of the Slate Belt Bicentennial Commission.

* Straka, Thomas J., and Wayne C. Ramer. 2010. “History on the Road: Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site.” Forest History Today Spring/Fall: 58–62. https://foresthistory.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/2010_History-on-Road.pdf

* Wagner, Van. 2008. Fire the Pit- Charcoal Production in Pennsylvania. 4 vols. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RxW7g3IwD1k ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xVE_7hMLMZU ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=88FbebFElaY ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ghj2p9rrUmM.

Charcoal production

2018-09-08T22:00:42Z

Michaelaf: /* Covering the Wood */

In nineteenth century Pennsylvania, charcoal was produced primarily to fuel [[iron production]]. Charcoal is the result of the destructive distillation of wood to yield a fuel that is primarily carbon. In the 19th century, when iron production was at its peak, the demand for charcoal as fuel for furnaces had an impact on forests. As a result, the charcoal industry was one of the first to think about sustainability and forestry.

==Types of Wood==
Generally, hard woods produced the best charcoal. Trees like oak, hickory, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chestnut chestnut], and elm were greatly preferred to softer woods, like gum and poplar.

==Making the Hearth==
Charcoal hearths require a large flat area.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref> They are often placed on hillsides to facilitate dirt movement and are usually round. In the center of the hearth, a triangular chimney is made from stacked wood. In the chimney, a large stick called the Fagan pole is inserted. The Fagan pole is used to mark the center of the pit and can be also be removed to provide drought during the process.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref>

==Piling the Wood==
After making the chimney and the pole, the collier leans pieces of hardwood around the chimney. Hardwood was the preferred type of wood to use in charcoal production because it was denser and therefore more conducive to the iron-making process.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 59.</ref>

==Covering the Wood==
The wood in the hearth is first covered with a layer of leaves or straw. Then, that is covered with dirt. The leaves act as a barrier between the wood and the dirt, helping to ensure even charring of the wood.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref>

==Igniting the Wood==
To ignite the wood, kindling wood is put up to the top of the the chimney. Then, hot coals are dropped into the chimney and the opening is covered with a piece called the "bridgen." The bridgen is then covered with leaves and straw.

==Ending the Burn==
The burn was ended before all the charcoal was finished burning because this helped Colliers maximize production.

==Removing the Charcoal==
To remove the finished charcoal, colliers used a large rake with long times. The tines ensure that the pieces of charcoal are dragged through the dirt on their way out of the hearth. This makes sure that no fires flare up and destroy the charcoal.

==Sustainability==
The need for charcoal in the iron industry created a significant demand for wood and a great deal of trees were chopped down for its production. One furnace required about 5,000 cords of wood to run in a year. Several early proponents of sustainable forestry were involved in the making of charcoal, like Bernhard E. Fernow, the manager of the Lehigh Furnace from 1879 to 1883. He advocated for coppicing of wood and protection from fire and cattle grazing to speed up regrowth of forest used for charcoal.

==Charcoal v. Coal==
The transition to coal as the primary fuel for furnaces began around 1840, but in 1859 around three-quarters of furnaces in America (particularly in Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York) still primarily used charcoal. Charcoal remained a source of fuel in some places until 1945.

Charcoal tended to produce a higher quality of iron than coal, partially because of its density. Iron made from charcoal had a "fine grain" compared to iron made by coal and maintained a better
cutting edge.

==Collier Life==
The public's general impression of Colliers was that they were dirty and uncivilized. The collier profession, though, was not one for the faint of heart, as great skill was required in order to successfully maintain multiple charcoal hearths at one time for months on end. Living alone, or occasionally with a son or friend, colliers couldn't afford to lose concentration or dedication for even one moment, as the slightest wayward breeze or hole in the charcoal hearth could cause irreparable damage. This profession required almost constant twenty-four-hour surveillance of the hearths. The most dangerous job of a collier was called "jumping the pit."This crucial job required a collier to climb up onto the hearth and pack down the dirt as best they could. If anything went awry, they risked falling into the smoldering charcoal fire. Colliers resided in huts laid out in a circle and framed by wood, insulated later on with mud, leaves, and dirt. There was oftentimes a large stone hearth or fireplace in the corner used for cooking and heating.

==Notes==
<references />

==References==
* "Agriculture andrRural economy – Charcoal → ." The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project. Ann Arbor: Michigan Publishing, University of Michigan Library, 2010. http://hdl.handle.net/2027/spo.did2222.0001.346 (accessed [fill in today's date in the form April 18, 2009 and remove square brackets]). Originally published as "Agriculture et économie rustique – Charbon de bois," Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, vol. 1 (plates) (Paris, 1762).

* Jones, Claude A. 1976. “Making Charcoal at Jacobsburg.” In Slate Belt Bicentennial Heritage, edited by Marjorie May, Maryann Repsher, Robert R. Saltern, Gordon E. Wilson, and Albert M. Toth, 32–33. Heritage Committee of the Slate Belt Bicentennial Commission.

* Straka, Thomas J., and Wayne C. Ramer. 2010. “History on the Road: Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site.” Forest History Today Spring/Fall: 58–62. https://foresthistory.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/2010_History-on-Road.pdf

* Wagner, Van. 2008. Fire the Pit- Charcoal Production in Pennsylvania. 4 vols. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RxW7g3IwD1k ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xVE_7hMLMZU ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=88FbebFElaY ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ghj2p9rrUmM.

Charcoal production

2018-09-08T21:59:31Z

Michaelaf: /* Making the Hearth */

In nineteenth century Pennsylvania, charcoal was produced primarily to fuel [[iron production]]. Charcoal is the result of the destructive distillation of wood to yield a fuel that is primarily carbon. In the 19th century, when iron production was at its peak, the demand for charcoal as fuel for furnaces had an impact on forests. As a result, the charcoal industry was one of the first to think about sustainability and forestry.

==Types of Wood==
Generally, hard woods produced the best charcoal. Trees like oak, hickory, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chestnut chestnut], and elm were greatly preferred to softer woods, like gum and poplar.

==Making the Hearth==
Charcoal hearths require a large flat area.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref> They are often placed on hillsides to facilitate dirt movement and are usually round. In the center of the hearth, a triangular chimney is made from stacked wood. In the chimney, a large stick called the Fagan pole is inserted. The Fagan pole is used to mark the center of the pit and can be also be removed to provide drought during the process.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref>

==Piling the Wood==
After making the chimney and the pole, the collier leans pieces of hardwood around the chimney. Hardwood was the preferred type of wood to use in charcoal production because it was denser and therefore more conducive to the iron-making process.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 59.</ref>

==Covering the Wood==
The wood in the hearth is first covered with a layer of leaves or straw. Then, that is covered with dirt. The leaves and straw act as a barrier between the wood and the dirt, helping to ensure even charring of the wood.

==Igniting the Wood==
To ignite the wood, kindling wood is put up to the top of the the chimney. Then, hot coals are dropped into the chimney and the opening is covered with a piece called the "bridgen." The bridgen is then covered with leaves and straw.

==Ending the Burn==
The burn was ended before all the charcoal was finished burning because this helped Colliers maximize production.

==Removing the Charcoal==
To remove the finished charcoal, colliers used a large rake with long times. The tines ensure that the pieces of charcoal are dragged through the dirt on their way out of the hearth. This makes sure that no fires flare up and destroy the charcoal.

==Sustainability==
The need for charcoal in the iron industry created a significant demand for wood and a great deal of trees were chopped down for its production. One furnace required about 5,000 cords of wood to run in a year. Several early proponents of sustainable forestry were involved in the making of charcoal, like Bernhard E. Fernow, the manager of the Lehigh Furnace from 1879 to 1883. He advocated for coppicing of wood and protection from fire and cattle grazing to speed up regrowth of forest used for charcoal.

==Charcoal v. Coal==
The transition to coal as the primary fuel for furnaces began around 1840, but in 1859 around three-quarters of furnaces in America (particularly in Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York) still primarily used charcoal. Charcoal remained a source of fuel in some places until 1945.

Charcoal tended to produce a higher quality of iron than coal, partially because of its density. Iron made from charcoal had a "fine grain" compared to iron made by coal and maintained a better
cutting edge.

==Collier Life==
The public's general impression of Colliers was that they were dirty and uncivilized. The collier profession, though, was not one for the faint of heart, as great skill was required in order to successfully maintain multiple charcoal hearths at one time for months on end. Living alone, or occasionally with a son or friend, colliers couldn't afford to lose concentration or dedication for even one moment, as the slightest wayward breeze or hole in the charcoal hearth could cause irreparable damage. This profession required almost constant twenty-four-hour surveillance of the hearths. The most dangerous job of a collier was called "jumping the pit."This crucial job required a collier to climb up onto the hearth and pack down the dirt as best they could. If anything went awry, they risked falling into the smoldering charcoal fire. Colliers resided in huts laid out in a circle and framed by wood, insulated later on with mud, leaves, and dirt. There was oftentimes a large stone hearth or fireplace in the corner used for cooking and heating.

==Notes==
<references />

==References==
* "Agriculture andrRural economy – Charcoal → ." The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project. Ann Arbor: Michigan Publishing, University of Michigan Library, 2010. http://hdl.handle.net/2027/spo.did2222.0001.346 (accessed [fill in today's date in the form April 18, 2009 and remove square brackets]). Originally published as "Agriculture et économie rustique – Charbon de bois," Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, vol. 1 (plates) (Paris, 1762).

* Jones, Claude A. 1976. “Making Charcoal at Jacobsburg.” In Slate Belt Bicentennial Heritage, edited by Marjorie May, Maryann Repsher, Robert R. Saltern, Gordon E. Wilson, and Albert M. Toth, 32–33. Heritage Committee of the Slate Belt Bicentennial Commission.

* Straka, Thomas J., and Wayne C. Ramer. 2010. “History on the Road: Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site.” Forest History Today Spring/Fall: 58–62. https://foresthistory.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/2010_History-on-Road.pdf

* Wagner, Van. 2008. Fire the Pit- Charcoal Production in Pennsylvania. 4 vols. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RxW7g3IwD1k ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xVE_7hMLMZU ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=88FbebFElaY ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ghj2p9rrUmM.

Charcoal production

2018-09-08T21:57:56Z

Michaelaf: /* Piling the Wood */

In nineteenth century Pennsylvania, charcoal was produced primarily to fuel [[iron production]]. Charcoal is the result of the destructive distillation of wood to yield a fuel that is primarily carbon. In the 19th century, when iron production was at its peak, the demand for charcoal as fuel for furnaces had an impact on forests. As a result, the charcoal industry was one of the first to think about sustainability and forestry.

==Types of Wood==
Generally, hard woods produced the best charcoal. Trees like oak, hickory, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chestnut chestnut], and elm were greatly preferred to softer woods, like gum and poplar.

==Making the Hearth==
Charcoal hearths require a large flat area.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref> They are often placed on hillsides to facilitate dirt movement and are usually round. In the center of the hearth, a triangular chimney is made from stacked wood. In the chimney, a large stick called the Fagan pole is inserted. The Fagan pole is used to mark the center of the pit and can be also be used to gauge how far down in the pit the charring is taking place.

==Piling the Wood==
After making the chimney and the pole, the collier leans pieces of hardwood around the chimney. Hardwood was the preferred type of wood to use in charcoal production because it was denser and therefore more conducive to the iron-making process.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 59.</ref>

==Covering the Wood==
The wood in the hearth is first covered with a layer of leaves or straw. Then, that is covered with dirt. The leaves and straw act as a barrier between the wood and the dirt, helping to ensure even charring of the wood.

==Igniting the Wood==
To ignite the wood, kindling wood is put up to the top of the the chimney. Then, hot coals are dropped into the chimney and the opening is covered with a piece called the "bridgen." The bridgen is then covered with leaves and straw.

==Ending the Burn==
The burn was ended before all the charcoal was finished burning because this helped Colliers maximize production.

==Removing the Charcoal==
To remove the finished charcoal, colliers used a large rake with long times. The tines ensure that the pieces of charcoal are dragged through the dirt on their way out of the hearth. This makes sure that no fires flare up and destroy the charcoal.

==Sustainability==
The need for charcoal in the iron industry created a significant demand for wood and a great deal of trees were chopped down for its production. One furnace required about 5,000 cords of wood to run in a year. Several early proponents of sustainable forestry were involved in the making of charcoal, like Bernhard E. Fernow, the manager of the Lehigh Furnace from 1879 to 1883. He advocated for coppicing of wood and protection from fire and cattle grazing to speed up regrowth of forest used for charcoal.

==Charcoal v. Coal==
The transition to coal as the primary fuel for furnaces began around 1840, but in 1859 around three-quarters of furnaces in America (particularly in Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York) still primarily used charcoal. Charcoal remained a source of fuel in some places until 1945.

Charcoal tended to produce a higher quality of iron than coal, partially because of its density. Iron made from charcoal had a "fine grain" compared to iron made by coal and maintained a better
cutting edge.

==Collier Life==
The public's general impression of Colliers was that they were dirty and uncivilized. The collier profession, though, was not one for the faint of heart, as great skill was required in order to successfully maintain multiple charcoal hearths at one time for months on end. Living alone, or occasionally with a son or friend, colliers couldn't afford to lose concentration or dedication for even one moment, as the slightest wayward breeze or hole in the charcoal hearth could cause irreparable damage. This profession required almost constant twenty-four-hour surveillance of the hearths. The most dangerous job of a collier was called "jumping the pit."This crucial job required a collier to climb up onto the hearth and pack down the dirt as best they could. If anything went awry, they risked falling into the smoldering charcoal fire. Colliers resided in huts laid out in a circle and framed by wood, insulated later on with mud, leaves, and dirt. There was oftentimes a large stone hearth or fireplace in the corner used for cooking and heating.

==Notes==
<references />

==References==
* "Agriculture andrRural economy – Charcoal → ." The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project. Ann Arbor: Michigan Publishing, University of Michigan Library, 2010. http://hdl.handle.net/2027/spo.did2222.0001.346 (accessed [fill in today's date in the form April 18, 2009 and remove square brackets]). Originally published as "Agriculture et économie rustique – Charbon de bois," Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, vol. 1 (plates) (Paris, 1762).

* Jones, Claude A. 1976. “Making Charcoal at Jacobsburg.” In Slate Belt Bicentennial Heritage, edited by Marjorie May, Maryann Repsher, Robert R. Saltern, Gordon E. Wilson, and Albert M. Toth, 32–33. Heritage Committee of the Slate Belt Bicentennial Commission.

* Straka, Thomas J., and Wayne C. Ramer. 2010. “History on the Road: Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site.” Forest History Today Spring/Fall: 58–62. https://foresthistory.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/2010_History-on-Road.pdf

* Wagner, Van. 2008. Fire the Pit- Charcoal Production in Pennsylvania. 4 vols. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RxW7g3IwD1k ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xVE_7hMLMZU ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=88FbebFElaY ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ghj2p9rrUmM.

Charcoal production

2018-09-08T21:54:06Z

Michaelaf: /* Piling the Wood */

In nineteenth century Pennsylvania, charcoal was produced primarily to fuel [[iron production]]. Charcoal is the result of the destructive distillation of wood to yield a fuel that is primarily carbon. In the 19th century, when iron production was at its peak, the demand for charcoal as fuel for furnaces had an impact on forests. As a result, the charcoal industry was one of the first to think about sustainability and forestry.

==Types of Wood==
Generally, hard woods produced the best charcoal. Trees like oak, hickory, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chestnut chestnut], and elm were greatly preferred to softer woods, like gum and poplar.

==Making the Hearth==
Charcoal hearths require a large flat area.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, p. 61.</ref> They are often placed on hillsides to facilitate dirt movement and are usually round. In the center of the hearth, a triangular chimney is made from stacked wood. In the chimney, a large stick called the Fagan pole is inserted. The Fagan pole is used to mark the center of the pit and can be also be used to gauge how far down in the pit the charring is taking place.

==Piling the Wood==
After making the chimney and the pole, the collier leans pieces of hardwood around the chimney. Hardwood was the preferred type of wood to use in charcoal production because it was denser and therefore more conducive to the iron-making process.<ref>Straka and Ramer 2014, p. 3.</ref>

==Covering the Wood==
The wood in the hearth is first covered with a layer of leaves or straw. Then, that is covered with dirt. The leaves and straw act as a barrier between the wood and the dirt, helping to ensure even charring of the wood.

==Igniting the Wood==
To ignite the wood, kindling wood is put up to the top of the the chimney. Then, hot coals are dropped into the chimney and the opening is covered with a piece called the "bridgen." The bridgen is then covered with leaves and straw.

==Ending the Burn==
The burn was ended before all the charcoal was finished burning because this helped Colliers maximize production.

==Removing the Charcoal==
To remove the finished charcoal, colliers used a large rake with long times. The tines ensure that the pieces of charcoal are dragged through the dirt on their way out of the hearth. This makes sure that no fires flare up and destroy the charcoal.

==Sustainability==
The need for charcoal in the iron industry created a significant demand for wood and a great deal of trees were chopped down for its production. One furnace required about 5,000 cords of wood to run in a year. Several early proponents of sustainable forestry were involved in the making of charcoal, like Bernhard E. Fernow, the manager of the Lehigh Furnace from 1879 to 1883. He advocated for coppicing of wood and protection from fire and cattle grazing to speed up regrowth of forest used for charcoal.

==Charcoal v. Coal==
The transition to coal as the primary fuel for furnaces began around 1840, but in 1859 around three-quarters of furnaces in America (particularly in Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York) still primarily used charcoal. Charcoal remained a source of fuel in some places until 1945.

Charcoal tended to produce a higher quality of iron than coal, partially because of its density. Iron made from charcoal had a "fine grain" compared to iron made by coal and maintained a better
cutting edge.

==Collier Life==
The public's general impression of Colliers was that they were dirty and uncivilized. The collier profession, though, was not one for the faint of heart, as great skill was required in order to successfully maintain multiple charcoal hearths at one time for months on end. Living alone, or occasionally with a son or friend, colliers couldn't afford to lose concentration or dedication for even one moment, as the slightest wayward breeze or hole in the charcoal hearth could cause irreparable damage. This profession required almost constant twenty-four-hour surveillance of the hearths. The most dangerous job of a collier was called "jumping the pit."This crucial job required a collier to climb up onto the hearth and pack down the dirt as best they could. If anything went awry, they risked falling into the smoldering charcoal fire. Colliers resided in huts laid out in a circle and framed by wood, insulated later on with mud, leaves, and dirt. There was oftentimes a large stone hearth or fireplace in the corner used for cooking and heating.

==Notes==
<references />

==References==
* "Agriculture andrRural economy – Charcoal → ." The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project. Ann Arbor: Michigan Publishing, University of Michigan Library, 2010. http://hdl.handle.net/2027/spo.did2222.0001.346 (accessed [fill in today's date in the form April 18, 2009 and remove square brackets]). Originally published as "Agriculture et économie rustique – Charbon de bois," Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, vol. 1 (plates) (Paris, 1762).

* Jones, Claude A. 1976. “Making Charcoal at Jacobsburg.” In Slate Belt Bicentennial Heritage, edited by Marjorie May, Maryann Repsher, Robert R. Saltern, Gordon E. Wilson, and Albert M. Toth, 32–33. Heritage Committee of the Slate Belt Bicentennial Commission.

* Straka, Thomas J., and Wayne C. Ramer. 2010. “History on the Road: Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site.” Forest History Today Spring/Fall: 58–62. https://foresthistory.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/2010_History-on-Road.pdf

* Wagner, Van. 2008. Fire the Pit- Charcoal Production in Pennsylvania. 4 vols. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RxW7g3IwD1k ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xVE_7hMLMZU ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=88FbebFElaY ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ghj2p9rrUmM.

Charcoal production

2018-09-05T00:24:39Z

Michaelaf: /* Sustainability */

Charcoal production

2018-09-05T00:21:20Z

Michaelaf: /* Sustainability */

Charcoal production

2018-09-05T00:17:47Z

Michaelaf: /* Charcoal v. Coal */

Charcoal production

2018-09-05T00:16:18Z

Michaelaf: /* Removing the Charcoal */

Charcoal production

2018-09-05T00:15:57Z

Michaelaf: /* Ending the Burn */

Charcoal production

2018-09-05T00:15:28Z

Michaelaf: /* Ending the Burn */

Charcoal production

2018-09-05T00:09:03Z

Michaelaf: /* Igniting the Wood */

Charcoal production

2018-09-05T00:03:37Z

Michaelaf: /* Covering the Wood */

Charcoal production

2018-09-05T00:01:39Z

Michaelaf: /* Piling the Wood */

Charcoal production

2018-09-05T00:00:33Z

Michaelaf: /* Making the Hearth */