View source for Colliers

=Collier Life=
Historically, the collier profession was not one for the faint of heart, as great skill was required in order to successfully maintain multiple charcoal hearths at one time for months on end<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, 60</ref>. Living alone, or occasionally with a son or apprentice, in a small [[Collier huts| collier hut]], colliers could not afford to lose concentration for even one moment, as the slightest wayward breeze or hole in the charcoal hearth could cause irreparable damage to the charcoal. However there were exceptions to this, and some colliers lived near the furnaces in more permanent housing<ref>Walker 1966,238</ref>, sometimes with the accompaniment of their families <ref>Walker 1966, 109</ref>. The Furnace management had to make certain that living quarters were available to all of their workmen. Some workers lived in homes they owned, others rented houses from the Furnace or local landlords. Rent for Furnace houses was usually from $12 to $25 per year. <ref>Walker 1966, 99</ref>. One such example of this can be identified in the 1860 census where John Bachman, a forty year old collier, was listed as living with his wife and eleven children, ages four months through nineteen years<ref>United States Census, 1860</ref>. More information on John Bachman can be found on the [[Lives of Workers]] page. Another notable collier in the area was [[Joseph Johns (1794-1906)]]. The collier's responsibilities did not begin until the wood had been sledded in from the wood chopper's ranks to the hearth and there set on end until the entire surface was filled.The collier was a very important workman, controlling to some degree the quality and quantity of the furnace product. <ref>Kemper 1941, 16</ref>.


The quality of charcoal was important to colliers' livelihood as high quality charcoal, charcoal that was strong, compact and heavy<ref> Walker 1966,240</ref>, fetched higher prices<ref>Straka 2014, 106</ref>. The collier profession required almost constant twenty-four-hour surveillance of the hearths [https://www.nps.gov/media/video/view.htm?id=FB3FA03A-1DD8-B71C-071149ADB08DBD2E]. A dangerous role a collier may have needed to perform was called "jumping the pit." This crucial job required a collier to climb onto the hearth and place more wood into any "soft spots" in the pile<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, 60</ref>. If anything went awry, the collier risked falling into the smoldering charcoal fire<ref>Straka and Ramer 2010, 60</ref>. While making charcoal, colliers lived in the woods in roughly constructed [[collier huts]]<ref>Walker 1966, 242</ref>. During the winter months, colliers became woodcutters in order to get a full-years wage, as the ideal season for charcoal production was during the warmer months of the year<ref>Kemper 1941, 10</ref>. During the winter, the collier would cut billets and lapwood in preparation for the summer. They also used their time in the winter months to create baskets that were woven with thin strips of lath or reeds around an oval hoop. These baskets were then used for carrying leaves and anywhere from 2-½ to 3 bushels of charcoal<ref>Kemper 1941, 16</ref>. Wood cut in April would typically contain 10 to 20 percent more water than wood that was cut in January<ref>Overman 1854, 80</ref>. Woodcutters were paid by the cord; some would try to deceive the system and loosely pile their billets or stack them over stumps to falsely increase the volume<ref> Walker 1966, 239</ref>. Often, the colliers lived at the site of production for months at a time, from late May to October. During the summer they lived in crude wood huts in areas with many insects. A master collier and one or two helpers "coaled" together, working as many as eight or nine pits at a time. This is probably why they wore long sleeves and pants, so as to protect them from the already volatile elements. Colliers bought relatively little food from the company store, leading to reason they must have raised much of what they ate. There were records of sales of melons, potatoes, turnips, turkeys, pork, veal and beef and a little mutton; shad, herring and mackerel; pickles, peaches, sweet potatoes, beans, cherries and cabbage. Corn meal was a regular item of store purchase before 1808 and seldom appeared after that. Rye and wheat flour were the more common bases for baked items in later years. Sugar, tea, coffee, chocolate, salt, pepper and spices were kept in regular stock at the store. Preserving of meat was a problem for colliers before freezing was available<ref>Walker 1966, 111</ref>. Master Colliers had 1 or 2 helpers that coaled together, working as many as 9 pits at the same time <ref> Kemper 1941 </ref> 

He first cleared his hearth of all vegetation which had grown there since the last time the tract had been coaled—possibly 30 years before—and raked out all the old dust to its edges. The next move was to locate the center of the hearth and to throw back enough of the lap-wood to enable him to get down to the surface<ref> Kemper 1941 </ref>

The Collier would make a ladder by notching an 8 inch log that was long enough to reach from the ground to the head. (pg. 16, Kemper, Jackson American Charcoal Making in the Era of the Cold Blast Furnace)Another tool used by the Collier was a crude wooden rake, made of six or seven 6-inch teeth placed about 2 inches apart in a small head, which was used to gather up the leaves on the forest floor. 	• After the leaves were raked, they were collected into the Collier's handmade basket so the could be scattered on the pit. These baskets were made by the Collier during the winter months by weaving together thin strips of lath or reeds around an oval hoop. Each one held about 2 1/2 to 3 bushels of charcoal. (P. 16, Kemper, Jackson American Charcoal Making in the Era of the Cold Blast Furnace) A long handled Collier's shovel was used to spread the dust on the pit. With just a small twist of the wrist while using the shovel spread the dust evenly to make sure all parts of the pit were covered. (pg. 18, Kemper, Jackson American Charcoal Making in the Era of the Cold Blast Furnace) Charcoal wagons were used to transport the charcoal. These wagons held between 100 to 300 bushels of coal, and were drawn by 6-mule teams and had high sideboards and a bottom that pulled out.
  


==Collier Pay==
Colliers were paid for their charring approximately $1.12-$1.25 per one hundred bushels of charcoal<ref>Overman 1854, 117</ref>. According to Walker<ref> Walker 1966, 261</ref>, colliers at Hopewell Furnace (Birdsboro, PA) made a monthly pay between $8.62-$20.62 in 1805-1807, $16.00-$23.00 in 1818-1820, $13.50-$18.00 in 1825-1827 and 1835-1837 and $17.50-$24.00 in 1851-1853. In order to better understand how much this is worth, we can convert this to modern amounts using Measuring Worth<ref> https://www.measuringworth.com/calculators/uscompare/relativevalue.php</ref>. For example, if we just adjust for inflation, $8.62 in 1805 is equivalent to $194.00 today (2019). That is an incomplete picture, however, because it does not take into account economic growth. "Relative labor earnings" is a better measure because it compares the wage to the average wage from the two time periods<ref> https://www.measuringworth.com/calculators/uscompare/#measures</ref>. Using this measure,<ref> https://www.measuringworth.com/calculators/uscompare/relativevalue.php</ref> $8.62 in 1805 would be more like getting paid between $3,110.00 (unskilled labor) to $5,940.00 (skilled labor) today (2019). Similarly, $17.50 in 1835 would have a "relative labor earnings" value of $5,170.00 (unskilled) and $10,500.00 (skilled). This suggests that, relative to today, colliers were relatively well paid. Indeed, at the Dale Furnace in 1799, only the Manager of the Furnace was paid more per month (9 pounds, 7 shillings and 6 pence or approximately $300.00/ year)than the "coaler" or collier (8 pounds). Even the furnace keeper, the individual responsible for the operation of the furnace, earned less than the colliers<ref> Gemmell 1949, 91</ref>. This is not quite as true between 1836-40 at the Hampton Furnace (Hereford Township, PA), when the colliers earned $17.50 compared to $25.00 for the keeper<ref> Gemmell 1949, 95</ref>. Cuts were made from the Colliers pay if the load was to small and/or the sticks weren't thoroughly charred <ref> Walker 1966 </ref>. The collier was a very important person in the iron making process, since he was the one who controlled the quality of the charcoal used for firing the furnace (pg. 240, Walker, Hopewell Village) The work was time consuming and required a lot of physical labor, and many of the Collier's originally came looking to make money by finding iron ore to make into iron. (pg. 2, Kemper, Jackson American Charcoal Making in the Era of the Cold Blast Furnace) 	• During the coaling the pits could not be neglected, so the collier was on constant duty, only eating or sleeping when the work allowed him to. (pg. 245, Walker, Hopewell)

==Collier Homes and Villages==
When speaking about the Hopewell Village in Pennsylvania the charcoal furnace workers typically lived in special villages that were designed to accommodate both single and married workers and that were located far from surrounding towns, so as to be closer to their work. While these villages provided many workers with the necessary resources to survive, they were too remote for other workers to live in. Some single men rented houses or boarded in mansions in which they hired a woman to take care of them. For example, furnace employees were needed near the furnace while others were needed at the coaling pits that were located far away from the villages: Meaning that instead of living in the villages, many colliers worked closer to their specific area of work. The house nearest the furnace is called for identification purposes by the National Park Service Tenant House Number 1. <ref>Hopewell Village: a Social and Economic History of an Iron-Making Community, by Joseph E. Walker, University of Pennsylvania Press, 1966, pp. 99–272.<ref> Each apartment has a front and a rear door, two rooms on the first floor, two on the second and one on the third. Each side also has its stairway near the center of the house from the cellar to the third floor and a chimney serving a first floor fireplace. It is believed that some of the tenants' houses had yards surrounded by picket fences that served as an area to grow vegetables and keep pigs and cows. 

It was recorded that the small stores in the villages only sold melons, potatoes, turnips, tur- keys, much pork, veal and beef and a little mutton; shad, herring and mackerel; pickles, peaches, sweet potatoes, beans, cherries and cabbage, meaning that the families probably raised the rest of what they ate. Additionally, the rent for houses was between $12 to $25 per year while others were as high as $45 per year. Housing at the Hopewell furnace varied widely from the “luxury of the ironmaster's mansion” to the “makeshift accommodations of John Roberts in the brick kiln.” All in all there has been no evidence of terribly poor conditions despite the variety.<ref>Hopewell Village: a Social and Economic History of an Iron-Making Community, by Joseph E. Walker, University of Pennsylvania Press, 1966, pp. 99–272.<ref>



==Notes==
<references />

==References==
*''Agriculture and Rural economy – Charcoal → .'' 2010. The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project. Ann Arbor: Michigan Publishing, University of Michigan Library. [http://hdl.handle.net/2027/spo.did2222.0001.346]. Originally published as "Agriculture et économie rustique – Charbon de bois," Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, vol. 1 (plates) (Paris, 1762).

*Gemmell, Alfred. 1949. ''The Charcoal Iron Industry in the Perkiomen Valley.'' Norristown, PA.: Hartenstine Printing House.

* Kemper, Jackson. 1941. ''American Charcoal Making in the Era of the Cold-Blast Furnace.'' History 14. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of the Interior; National Park Service.

*MeasuringWorth Foundation. 2020. ''Measuring Worth- Relative Worth Comparators and Data Sets''. [https://www.measuringworth.com/index.php . Accessed April 24, 2020]

*Overman, Frederick. 1854. ''The Manufacture of Iron, in all its Various Branches'' (3rd ed.). Philadelphia: Baird. [https://www.google.com/books/edition/the_manufacture_of_iron_in_all_its_vario/Gani2eHvhAkC?hl=en&gbpv=1]

*Straka, Thomas J., and Wayne C. Ramer. 2010. ''History on the Road: Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site.'' Forest History Today Spring/Fall: 58–62.[https://foresthistory.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/2010_History-on-Road.pdf]

*Straka, Thomas J. 2014. ''Historic Charcoal Production in the US and Forest Depletion: Development of Production Parameters.'' Advances in Historical Studies: 104-114.[http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ahs.2014.32010]

*Svedelius, G., Joseph Leonard W. Nicodemus, and Björn R. Anderson. 1875. ''Hand-book for Charcoal Burners.'' New York: Wiley. [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc2.ark:/13960/t7dr2qz7d&view=1up&seq=166]

*''United States Census, 1860,'' database with images, FamilySearch [https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/3:1:33S7-9BSD-C5Y?cc=1473181&wc=7QL9-Y6C%3A1589434177%2C1589434982%2C1589435676] : 24 March 2017, Pennsylvania > Carbon > East Penn Township > image 2 of 22; from "1860 U.S. Federal Census - Population," database, Fold3.com (http://www.fold3.com : n.d.); citing NARA microfilm publication M653 (Washington, D.C.: National Archives and Records Administration, n.d.).

* Walker, Joseph E. 1966. ''Hopewell Village; a Social and Economic History of an Iron-Making Community.'' Philadelphia,: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press.