Harvesting Wood - Revision history

JShavel at 18:52, 2 October 2020

2020-10-02T18:52:45Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 18:52, 2 October 2020
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	==Wood==		==Wood==
	Charcoal production involved extensive woodcutting over broad forest areas, ~~often~~ times whole forests ~~were~~ depleted. Wood must be dry before it could be used for [[charcoal production]] and [[iron production]]~~. Wood~~ cut in the late autumn and early winter proved to hold the least amount of water. For example, wood cut in April would typically contain 10 to 20 percent more water than wood that was cut in January~~. Wood~~ cut in December and January was more solid and would dry faster<ref>Overman 1854, 80</ref>. If the wood was still moist, a collier would allow the wood to air-dry which was more efficient ~~compared to~~ drying the wood in the charcoal pit<ref>Straka 2014, 107</ref>. Dead or decayed wood was of no use for making charcoal<ref>Overman 1854, 83</ref>.		Charcoal production involved extensive woodcutting over broad forest areas, which led at times to whole forests being depleted. Wood must be dry before it could be used for [[charcoal production]] and [[iron production]], and wood cut in the late autumn and early winter proved to hold the least amount of water. For example, wood cut in April would typically contain 10 to 20 percent more water than wood that was cut in January, while wood cut in December and January was more solid and would dry faster<ref>Overman 1854, 80</ref>. If the wood was still moist, a collier would allow the wood to air-dry, which was more efficient than drying the wood in the charcoal pit<ref>Straka 2014, 107</ref>. Dead or decayed wood was of no use for making charcoal<ref>Overman 1854, 83</ref>.

	In 1878, 4 cords worth of charcoal ~~proved to provide~~ 1 ton of pig iron <ref>Straka 2010, 60</ref>. Places like Hopewell Furnace would use a 30 year cutting cycle which meant they had to use ~~way more~~ land so that the cut trees had plenty of time to regrow. Around 200 acres would be cut annually at Hopewell and 147,000 acres or 230 square miles of forest were harvested annually nationwide which led to obvious cases of forest depletion. In response to the depletion, furnaces and their employees ~~because~~ very strong supporters of forestry early on ~~because~~ of ~~their need for forests to continue supplying~~ wood <ref>Straka 2010, 60</ref>		In 1878, 4 cords worth of charcoal provided about 1 ton of pig iron <ref>Straka 2010, 60</ref>. Places like Hopewell Furnace would use a 30-year cutting cycle, which meant they had to use enough land so that the cut trees had plenty of time to regrow. Around 200 acres would be cut annually at Hopewell, and approximately 147,000 acres or 230 square miles of forest were harvested annually nationwide, which led to obvious cases of forest depletion. In response to the depletion, furnaces and their employees became very strong supporters of forestry early on in order to maintain a steady supply of wood <ref>Straka 2010, 60</ref>.

	The kind of wood has a major impact on the quality of charcoal. Denser types of woods (oak, hickory, chestnut and elm) were preferred to soft woods (gum and poplar) as they produced more heat and were less friable<ref>Straka 2015, 106</ref>. It has been recorded that sometimes a mixture of soft and hard woods would be used to create charcoal<ref>Straka 2014, 106</ref>. Even the ground condition for the pit plays a role in the carbonization of wood. A perfectly level ground, free from any draft that is dry and solid is optimal charcoal production <ref>Straka 2010, 107</ref>. It was also important that the wood being harvested was in good condition, ~~this~~ meant no decaying, ~~knotted~~ or defects ~~in the wood~~<ref>Straka 2014, 106-107</ref>. The season in which the wood is gathered and burned is also very important. Charcoal is usually made in the late summer early fall so that the wood from the previous season has time to dry out <ref>Straka 2010, 107</ref>. Even the condition in which the wood is burning can play a part in the quality of charcoal produced~~. Things~~ like temperature and wind speed can effect the time it takes for a piece of wood to carbonize <ref>Straka 2010, 107</ref>. Optimal size for commercial charcoal is about 25 to 80 mm across the grain<ref>Svedelius 1875</ref>. Most, if not all species of wood can be carbonized to make charcoal.		The kind of wood used has a major impact on the quality of charcoal. Denser types of woods (oak, hickory, chestnut and elm) were preferred to soft woods (gum and poplar) as they produced more heat and were less friable<ref>Straka 2015, 106</ref>. It has been recorded that sometimes a mixture of soft and hard woods would be used to create charcoal<ref>Straka 2014, 106</ref>. Old growth forests had higher yields, while second growth could take up to a century to be able to produce that high a yield<ref>Straka 2014, 105</ref>. Even the ground condition for the pit plays a role in the carbonization of wood. A perfectly level ground, free from any draft that is dry and solid is optimal charcoal production <ref>Straka 2010, 107</ref>. It was also important that the wood being harvested was in good condition, which meant that no decaying, or wood with knots or defects could be used<ref>Straka 2014, 106-107</ref>. The season in which the wood is gathered and burned is also very important. Charcoal is usually made in the late summer early fall so that the wood from the previous season has time to dry out <ref>Straka 2010, 107</ref>. Even the condition in which the wood is burning can play a part in the quality of charcoal produced, since things like temperature and wind speed can effect the time it takes for a piece of wood to carbonize <ref>Straka 2010, 107</ref>. Optimal size for commercial charcoal is about 25 to 80 mm across the grain<ref>Svedelius 1875</ref>. Most, if not all species of wood can be carbonized to make charcoal.

	While some researchers will state furnace production and forest area depletion as a measure of environmental destruction, putting these figures together is not a straightforward process. This is because yields vary by the furnace used, the collier and the types of wood involved. (Stratka)

	~~Skilled colliers could get a higher yield from the wood. (Stratka)~~

	~~Old growth forests had higher yields, while second gorwth could take up to a century to be able to product that high a yield (Stratka)~~

	~~Charcoal can give up two times as much heat as wood, and burns more evenly than wood (Stratka).~~

	~~Heavier wood takes longer to burn for charcoal making. (Stratka)~~

	~~In the East the hardwood forests usually yielded 30 to 35 cords to an acre, and it took approximately 30 years of growth time to produce the yields. (Stratka)~~

	==Woodcutters==		==Woodcutters==
	A cord of wood is four foot lengths of wood stacked four feet high and eight feet long~~. Woodcutters~~ could cut anywhere from a few cords to more than one thousand cords. Many woodcutters were farmers who supplemented their income in the offseason<ref>Walker 1966, 238</ref>. For example, between 1851-1853 Edwin Gault was paid for 1993.5 cords<ref>Walker 1966, 238</ref>. One must remember, however, that he may have had helpers whom he then paid. Colliers also became woodcutters during the winter months in order to get a full-years wage<ref>Kemper 1941, 10</ref>. Payments for cutting wood varied greatly due to location and time<ref>Overman 1854, 84</ref>.		A cord of wood is four foot lengths of wood stacked four feet high and eight feet long, and woodcutters could cut anywhere from a few cords to more than one thousand cords. Many woodcutters were farmers who supplemented their income in the offseason<ref>Walker 1966, 238</ref>. For example, between 1851-1853 Edwin Gault was paid for 1993.5 cords<ref>Walker 1966, 238</ref>. One must remember, however, that he may have had helpers whom he then paid. Colliers also became woodcutters during the winter months in order to get a full-years wage<ref>Kemper 1941, 10</ref>. Payments for cutting wood varied greatly due to location and time<ref>Overman 1854, 84</ref>.

	Wood cutters comprised a large proportion of the workers at any charcoal iron furnace. At Hopewell Furnace between 1851-1853, 225 ~~persons~~ were paid for any type of work and 116 were paid for cutting cord wood<ref>Walker 1966, 239</ref>. At Hopewell, on average approximately two cords of wood could be chopped down in a single day<ref>Walker 1966, 239</ref>. Two and a half cords was the average at Hanging Rock District<ref>Crandall 1906, 20</ref>. It was noted, however, that in the Hanging Rock District there worked "...Reuben Beverly, who was reputed to be the champion chopper of this region and who, it is said, could cut, split and rank eight cords per day indefinitely. His name was as familiar throughout the Hanging Rock field as was that of the lad who cut down the cherry tree"<ref>Crandall 1906, 20</ref>. Crandall also indicated that he personally had "known many expert wood choppers who could chop, split and rank from four to five cords a day"<ref>Crandall 1906, 20</ref>.		Wood cutters comprised a large proportion of the workers at any charcoal iron furnace. At Hopewell Furnace between 1851-1853, 225 people were paid for any type of work and 116 were paid for cutting cord wood<ref>Walker 1966, 239</ref>. At Hopewell, on average approximately two cords of wood could be chopped down in a single day<ref>Walker 1966, 239</ref>. Two and a half cords was the average at Hanging Rock District<ref>Crandall 1906, 20</ref>. It was noted, however, that in the Hanging Rock District there worked "...Reuben Beverly, who was reputed to be the champion chopper of this region and who, it is said, could cut, split and rank eight cords per day indefinitely. His name was as familiar throughout the Hanging Rock field as was that of the lad who cut down the cherry tree"<ref>Crandall 1906, 20</ref>. Crandall also indicated that he personally had "known many expert wood choppers who could chop, split and rank from four to five cords a day"<ref>Crandall 1906, 20</ref>.

	~~Woodcutters~~ sometimes ~~delivered~~ the wood to charcoal hearths, ~~called~~ "delivering in the ring"~~. They were paid~~ $1.75 ~~for this wood~~<ref>Walker 1966, 239</ref>.		Another way woodcutters sometimes earned additional money was by delivering the wood to the charcoal hearths. Hauling to the pit could earn $1.50 a cord, while, "delivering in the ring" might go as high as $1.75 a cord<ref>Walker 1966, 239</ref>.

	==Deforestation==		==Deforestation==
	~~When~~ studying Charcoal production in the United ~~states~~ it is important to note the detrimental effects it has on the natural landscapes including the forest. Charcoal production created a huge impact on forest depletion, sparking movements across America to find more ethical and less harmful methods of both charcoal production and deforestation. The three main factors of charcoal production that contributed to deforestation were: furnace productivity, charcoal making, and woodland yield. Forest destruction tended to be complete near smelters and furnaces, it was generally localized near the demand for the fuel.<ref>Straka 2014, 105</ref>. The average annual furnace output was 1000 tons of pig iron. ~~Thus,~~ an average iron plantation furnace would require fuel from 150 acres of woodland per year. <ref>Straka 2014, 105</ref>.The woodland area surrounding the furnace was extremely important to feeding the charcoal furnace. <ref>Straka 2014, 110</ref>. Because of the consistent use for the furnaces, regeneration and growth were so slow that wood supplies would likely be depleted after a decade or so of woodcutting<ref>Straka 2014, 111</ref>. The furnaces acknowledged the slow regeneration of wood and as a result many furnaces practiced various forms of conservation and land management as a way of maintaining their source of fuel<ref>Straka 2014, 106</ref>. Over time iron production became increasingly efficient, ergo more acres of woodland were required to fuel production<ref>Straka 2014, 106</ref>. Woodlands in the east were typically more plentiful than that in the western United States and they typically took less time to regenerate<ref>Straka 2014, 111</ref>. Calculations of woodland required for production varied based on factors such as location, furnace productivity (pit or kiln), and forest regeneration<ref>Straka 2014, 110-111</ref>. Eastern woodlands typically supplied more wood per acre and regenerated more quickly than their western counterparts~~<ref>Straka 2014~~, ~~111</ref>.~~		While studying Charcoal production in the United States it is important to note the detrimental effects it has on the natural landscapes including the forest. Charcoal production created a huge impact on forest depletion, sparking movements across America to find more ethical and less harmful methods of both charcoal production and deforestation. The three main factors of charcoal production that contributed to deforestation were: furnace productivity, charcoal making, and woodland yield. Forest destruction tended to be complete near smelters and furnaces, and it was generally localized near the demand for the fuel.<ref>Straka 2014, 105</ref>. The average annual furnace output was 1000 tons of pig iron. Some experts would say an average iron plantation furnace would require fuel from 150 acres of woodland per year, but putting these figures together is not a straightforward process. This is because yields vary by the furnace used, the collier and the types of wood involved<ref>Straka 2014, 105</ref>.The woodland area surrounding the furnace was extremely important to feeding the charcoal furnace. <ref>Straka 2014, 110</ref>. Because of the consistent use for the furnaces, regeneration and growth were so slow that wood supplies would likely be depleted after a decade or so of woodcutting<ref>Straka 2014, 111</ref>. The furnaces acknowledged the slow regeneration of wood and as a result many furnaces practiced various forms of conservation and land management as a way of maintaining their source of fuel<ref>Straka 2014, 106</ref>. The idea of a sustainable forest came from European forestry. It requires cutting only as much forest so that the same amount can be regrown in a year. This allows a cycle to take place where each year there is the same amount of mature wood available to harvest as is needed<ref>Straka 2014, 111</ref>. Over time iron production became increasingly efficient, ergo more acres of woodland were required to fuel production<ref>Straka 2014, 106</ref>. Woodlands in the east were typically more plentiful than that in the western United States and they typically took less time to regenerate<ref>Straka 2014, 111</ref>. Calculations of woodland required for production varied based on factors such as location, furnace productivity (pit or kiln), and forest regeneration<ref>Straka 2014, 110-111</ref>. Eastern woodlands typically supplied more wood per acre and regenerated more quickly than their western counterparts, but it is important to remember that the productivity of the furnace, the skill of the collier and the yield of various types of trees can all impact the productivity rate of charcoal production<ref>Straka 2014, 111</ref>.

	~~The idea of a sustainable forest came from European forestry. It requires cutting only as much forest so~~ that the ~~same amount can be regrown in a year. This allows a cycle to take place where each year there is~~ the ~~same amount of mature wood available to harvest as is needed. (Stratka)~~

	~~An example of this is presented by Gordon for an eastern charcoal furnace (1996: p. 40). One~~ furnace ~~would burn 356~~,~~000 bushels~~ of ~~charcoal. The associated charcoal pit production took a cord~~ of ~~wood to produce 30 bushels~~ of ~~charcoal, which means one furncae might need 11,900 cords~~ of ~~wood a year. An average woodland produced 20 cords an acre, so this would mean that~~ charcoal ~~pit wood need 600 acres of woodland a year. So every year 600 acres of timber was cut~~, ~~and then would was allowed to regenrate for the next 20 years~~. ~~This produced one 600 acre area a year, with 20 different areas maturing at various rates in order to allow the sustainable production of wood. (Gordon 1996 p. 40)~~

	~~It is important to remember that the productivity of the furnace, the skill of the collier and the yield of various types of trees can all impact the productivity rate of charcoal production.~~

	==Notes==		==Notes==

DanaGraham: /* Deforestation */

2020-09-29T16:13:25Z

Deforestation

← Older revision		Revision as of 16:13, 29 September 2020
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	==Deforestation==		==Deforestation==
	Charcoal production created a huge impact on forest depletion. Forest destruction tended to be complete near smelters and furnaces, it was generally localized near the demand for the fuel.<ref>Straka 2014, 105</ref>. The average annual furnace output was 1000 tons of pig iron. Thus, an average iron plantation furnace would require fuel from 150 acres of woodland per year. <ref>Straka 2014, 105</ref>.The woodland area surrounding the furnace was extremely important to feeding the charcoal furnace. <ref>Straka 2014, 110</ref>. Because of the consistent use for the furnaces, regeneration and growth were so slow that wood supplies would likely be depleted after a decade or so of woodcutting<ref>Straka 2014, 111</ref>. The furnaces acknowledged the slow regeneration of wood and as a result many furnaces practiced various forms of conservation and land management as a way of maintaining their source of fuel<ref>Straka 2014, 106</ref>. Over time iron production became increasingly efficient, ergo more acres of woodland were required to fuel production<ref>Straka 2014, 106</ref>. Woodlands in the east were typically more plentiful than that in the western United States and they typically took less time to regenerate<ref>Straka 2014, 111</ref>. Calculations of woodland required for production varied based on factors such as location, furnace productivity (pit or kiln), and forest regeneration<ref>Straka 2014, 110-111</ref>. Eastern woodlands typically supplied more wood per acre and regenerated more quickly than their western counterparts<ref>Straka 2014, 111</ref>.		When studying Charcoal production in the United states it is important to note the detrimental effects it has on the natural landscapes including the forest. Charcoal production created a huge impact on forest depletion, sparking movements across America to find more ethical and less harmful methods of both charcoal production and deforestation. The three main factors of charcoal production that contributed to deforestation were: furnace productivity, charcoal making, and woodland yield. Forest destruction tended to be complete near smelters and furnaces, it was generally localized near the demand for the fuel.<ref>Straka 2014, 105</ref>. The average annual furnace output was 1000 tons of pig iron. Thus, an average iron plantation furnace would require fuel from 150 acres of woodland per year. <ref>Straka 2014, 105</ref>.The woodland area surrounding the furnace was extremely important to feeding the charcoal furnace. <ref>Straka 2014, 110</ref>. Because of the consistent use for the furnaces, regeneration and growth were so slow that wood supplies would likely be depleted after a decade or so of woodcutting<ref>Straka 2014, 111</ref>. The furnaces acknowledged the slow regeneration of wood and as a result many furnaces practiced various forms of conservation and land management as a way of maintaining their source of fuel<ref>Straka 2014, 106</ref>. Over time iron production became increasingly efficient, ergo more acres of woodland were required to fuel production<ref>Straka 2014, 106</ref>. Woodlands in the east were typically more plentiful than that in the western United States and they typically took less time to regenerate<ref>Straka 2014, 111</ref>. Calculations of woodland required for production varied based on factors such as location, furnace productivity (pit or kiln), and forest regeneration<ref>Straka 2014, 110-111</ref>. Eastern woodlands typically supplied more wood per acre and regenerated more quickly than their western counterparts<ref>Straka 2014, 111</ref>.

	The idea of a sustainable forest came from European forestry. It requires cutting only as much forest so that the same amount can be regrown in a year. This allows a cycle to take place where each year there is the same amount of mature wood available to harvest as is needed. (Stratka)		The idea of a sustainable forest came from European forestry. It requires cutting only as much forest so that the same amount can be regrown in a year. This allows a cycle to take place where each year there is the same amount of mature wood available to harvest as is needed. (Stratka)

JShavel: /* Deforestation */

2020-09-29T16:11:52Z

Deforestation

← Older revision		Revision as of 16:11, 29 September 2020
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	==Deforestation==		==Deforestation==
	Charcoal production created a huge impact on forest depletion. Forest destruction tended to be complete near smelters and furnaces, it was generally localized near the demand for the fuel.<ref>Straka 2014, 105</ref>. The average annual furnace output was 1000 tons of pig iron. Thus, an average iron plantation furnace would require fuel from 150 acres of woodland per year. <ref>Straka 2014, 105</ref>.The woodland area surrounding the furnace was extremely important to feeding the charcoal furnace. <ref>Straka 2014, 110</ref>. Because of the consistent use for the furnaces, regeneration and growth were so slow that wood supplies would likely be depleted after a decade or so of woodcutting<ref>Straka 2014, 111</ref>. The furnaces acknowledged the slow regeneration of wood and as a result many furnaces practiced various forms of conservation and land management as a way of maintaining their source of fuel<ref>Straka 2014, 106</ref>. Over time iron production became increasingly efficient, ergo more acres of woodland were required to fuel production<ref>Straka 2014, 106</ref>. Woodlands in the east were typically more plentiful than that in the western United States and they typically took less time to regenerate<ref>Straka 2014, 111</ref>. Calculations of woodland required for production varied based on factors such as location, furnace productivity (pit or kiln), and forest regeneration<ref>Straka 2014, 110-111</ref>. Eastern woodlands typically supplied more wood per acre and regenerated more quickly than their western counterparts<ref>Straka 2014, 111</ref>.		Charcoal production created a huge impact on forest depletion. Forest destruction tended to be complete near smelters and furnaces, it was generally localized near the demand for the fuel.<ref>Straka 2014, 105</ref>. The average annual furnace output was 1000 tons of pig iron. Thus, an average iron plantation furnace would require fuel from 150 acres of woodland per year. <ref>Straka 2014, 105</ref>.The woodland area surrounding the furnace was extremely important to feeding the charcoal furnace. <ref>Straka 2014, 110</ref>. Because of the consistent use for the furnaces, regeneration and growth were so slow that wood supplies would likely be depleted after a decade or so of woodcutting<ref>Straka 2014, 111</ref>. The furnaces acknowledged the slow regeneration of wood and as a result many furnaces practiced various forms of conservation and land management as a way of maintaining their source of fuel<ref>Straka 2014, 106</ref>. Over time iron production became increasingly efficient, ergo more acres of woodland were required to fuel production<ref>Straka 2014, 106</ref>. Woodlands in the east were typically more plentiful than that in the western United States and they typically took less time to regenerate<ref>Straka 2014, 111</ref>. Calculations of woodland required for production varied based on factors such as location, furnace productivity (pit or kiln), and forest regeneration<ref>Straka 2014, 110-111</ref>. Eastern woodlands typically supplied more wood per acre and regenerated more quickly than their western counterparts<ref>Straka 2014, 111</ref>.

			The idea of a sustainable forest came from European forestry. It requires cutting only as much forest so that the same amount can be regrown in a year. This allows a cycle to take place where each year there is the same amount of mature wood available to harvest as is needed. (Stratka)

			An example of this is presented by Gordon for an eastern charcoal furnace (1996: p. 40). One furnace would burn 356,000 bushels of charcoal. The associated charcoal pit production took a cord of wood to produce 30 bushels of charcoal, which means one furncae might need 11,900 cords of wood a year. An average woodland produced 20 cords an acre, so this would mean that charcoal pit wood need 600 acres of woodland a year. So every year 600 acres of timber was cut, and then would was allowed to regenrate for the next 20 years. This produced one 600 acre area a year, with 20 different areas maturing at various rates in order to allow the sustainable production of wood. (Gordon 1996 p. 40)

			It is important to remember that the productivity of the furnace, the skill of the collier and the yield of various types of trees can all impact the productivity rate of charcoal production.

	==Notes==		==Notes==

JShavel: /* Wood */

2020-09-29T16:11:27Z

Wood

← Older revision		Revision as of 16:11, 29 September 2020
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	The kind of wood has a major impact on the quality of charcoal. Denser types of woods (oak, hickory, chestnut and elm) were preferred to soft woods (gum and poplar) as they produced more heat and were less friable<ref>Straka 2015, 106</ref>. It has been recorded that sometimes a mixture of soft and hard woods would be used to create charcoal<ref>Straka 2014, 106</ref>. Even the ground condition for the pit plays a role in the carbonization of wood. A perfectly level ground, free from any draft that is dry and solid is optimal charcoal production <ref>Straka 2010, 107</ref>. It was also important that the wood being harvested was in good condition, this meant no decaying, knotted or defects in the wood<ref>Straka 2014, 106-107</ref>. The season in which the wood is gathered and burned is also very important. Charcoal is usually made in the late summer early fall so that the wood from the previous season has time to dry out <ref>Straka 2010, 107</ref>. Even the condition in which the wood is burning can play a part in the quality of charcoal produced. Things like temperature and wind speed can effect the time it takes for a piece of wood to carbonize <ref>Straka 2010, 107</ref>. Optimal size for commercial charcoal is about 25 to 80 mm across the grain<ref>Svedelius 1875</ref>. Most, if not all species of wood can be carbonized to make charcoal.		The kind of wood has a major impact on the quality of charcoal. Denser types of woods (oak, hickory, chestnut and elm) were preferred to soft woods (gum and poplar) as they produced more heat and were less friable<ref>Straka 2015, 106</ref>. It has been recorded that sometimes a mixture of soft and hard woods would be used to create charcoal<ref>Straka 2014, 106</ref>. Even the ground condition for the pit plays a role in the carbonization of wood. A perfectly level ground, free from any draft that is dry and solid is optimal charcoal production <ref>Straka 2010, 107</ref>. It was also important that the wood being harvested was in good condition, this meant no decaying, knotted or defects in the wood<ref>Straka 2014, 106-107</ref>. The season in which the wood is gathered and burned is also very important. Charcoal is usually made in the late summer early fall so that the wood from the previous season has time to dry out <ref>Straka 2010, 107</ref>. Even the condition in which the wood is burning can play a part in the quality of charcoal produced. Things like temperature and wind speed can effect the time it takes for a piece of wood to carbonize <ref>Straka 2010, 107</ref>. Optimal size for commercial charcoal is about 25 to 80 mm across the grain<ref>Svedelius 1875</ref>. Most, if not all species of wood can be carbonized to make charcoal.

			While some researchers will state furnace production and forest area depletion as a measure of environmental destruction, putting these figures together is not a straightforward process. This is because yields vary by the furnace used, the collier and the types of wood involved. (Stratka)

			Skilled colliers could get a higher yield from the wood. (Stratka)

			Old growth forests had higher yields, while second gorwth could take up to a century to be able to product that high a yield (Stratka)

			Charcoal can give up two times as much heat as wood, and burns more evenly than wood (Stratka).

			Heavier wood takes longer to burn for charcoal making. (Stratka)

			In the East the hardwood forests usually yielded 30 to 35 cords to an acre, and it took approximately 30 years of growth time to produce the yields. (Stratka)

	==Woodcutters==		==Woodcutters==

Bigcountry3 at 13:58, 29 September 2020

2020-09-29T13:58:28Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 13:58, 29 September 2020
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	In 1878, 4 cords worth of charcoal proved to provide 1 ton of pig iron <ref>Straka 2010, 60</ref>. Places like Hopewell Furnace would use a 30 year cutting cycle which meant they had to use way more land so that the cut trees had plenty of time to regrow. Around 200 acres would be cut annually at Hopewell and 147,000 acres or 230 square miles of forest were harvested annually nationwide which led to obvious cases of forest depletion. In response to the depletion, furnaces and their employees because very strong supporters of forestry early on because of their need for forests to continue supplying wood <ref>Straka 2010, 60</ref>		In 1878, 4 cords worth of charcoal proved to provide 1 ton of pig iron <ref>Straka 2010, 60</ref>. Places like Hopewell Furnace would use a 30 year cutting cycle which meant they had to use way more land so that the cut trees had plenty of time to regrow. Around 200 acres would be cut annually at Hopewell and 147,000 acres or 230 square miles of forest were harvested annually nationwide which led to obvious cases of forest depletion. In response to the depletion, furnaces and their employees because very strong supporters of forestry early on because of their need for forests to continue supplying wood <ref>Straka 2010, 60</ref>

	The kind of wood has a major impact on the quality of charcoal. Denser types of woods were preferred to soft woods as they produced more heat and were less friable<ref>Straka 2015, 106</ref>. It has been recorded that sometimes a mixture of soft and hard woods would be used to create charcoal<ref>Straka 2014, 106</ref>. Even the ground condition for the pit plays a role in the carbonization of wood. A perfectly level ground, free from any draft that is dry and solid is optimal charcoal production <ref>Straka 2010, 107</ref>. It was also important that the wood being harvested was in good condition, this meant no decaying, knotted or defects in the wood<ref>Straka 2014, 106-107</ref>. The season in which the wood is gathered and burned is also very important. Charcoal is usually made in the late summer early fall so that the wood from the previous season has time to dry out <ref>Straka 2010, 107</ref>. Even the condition in which the wood is burning can play a part in the quality of charcoal produced. Things like temperature and wind speed can effect the time it takes for a piece of wood to carbonize <ref>Straka 2010, 107</ref>. Optimal size for commercial charcoal is about 25 to 80 mm across the grain<ref>Svedelius 1875</ref>. Most, if not all species of wood can be carbonized to make charcoal.		The kind of wood has a major impact on the quality of charcoal. Denser types of woods (oak, hickory, chestnut and elm) were preferred to soft woods (gum and poplar) as they produced more heat and were less friable<ref>Straka 2015, 106</ref>. It has been recorded that sometimes a mixture of soft and hard woods would be used to create charcoal<ref>Straka 2014, 106</ref>. Even the ground condition for the pit plays a role in the carbonization of wood. A perfectly level ground, free from any draft that is dry and solid is optimal charcoal production <ref>Straka 2010, 107</ref>. It was also important that the wood being harvested was in good condition, this meant no decaying, knotted or defects in the wood<ref>Straka 2014, 106-107</ref>. The season in which the wood is gathered and burned is also very important. Charcoal is usually made in the late summer early fall so that the wood from the previous season has time to dry out <ref>Straka 2010, 107</ref>. Even the condition in which the wood is burning can play a part in the quality of charcoal produced. Things like temperature and wind speed can effect the time it takes for a piece of wood to carbonize <ref>Straka 2010, 107</ref>. Optimal size for commercial charcoal is about 25 to 80 mm across the grain<ref>Svedelius 1875</ref>. Most, if not all species of wood can be carbonized to make charcoal.

	==Woodcutters==		==Woodcutters==

Bigcountry3 at 12:29, 29 September 2020

2020-09-29T12:29:46Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 12:29, 29 September 2020
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	==Wood==		==Wood==
	Charcoal production involved extensive woodcutting over broad forest areas, often times whole forests were depleted. Wood must be dry before it could be used for [[charcoal production]] and [[iron production]]. Wood cut in the late autumn and early winter proved to hold the least amount of water. For example, wood cut in April would typically contain 10 to 20 percent more water than wood that was cut in January. Wood cut in December and January was more solid and would dry faster<ref>Overman 1854, 80</ref>. If the wood was still moist, a collier would allow the wood to air-dry which was more efficient compared to drying the wood in the charcoal pit<ref>Straka ~~2010~~, 107</ref>. Dead or decayed wood was of no use for making charcoal<ref>Overman 1854, 83</ref>.		Charcoal production involved extensive woodcutting over broad forest areas, often times whole forests were depleted. Wood must be dry before it could be used for [[charcoal production]] and [[iron production]]. Wood cut in the late autumn and early winter proved to hold the least amount of water. For example, wood cut in April would typically contain 10 to 20 percent more water than wood that was cut in January. Wood cut in December and January was more solid and would dry faster<ref>Overman 1854, 80</ref>. If the wood was still moist, a collier would allow the wood to air-dry which was more efficient compared to drying the wood in the charcoal pit<ref>Straka 2014, 107</ref>. Dead or decayed wood was of no use for making charcoal<ref>Overman 1854, 83</ref>.

	In 1878, 4 cords worth of charcoal proved to provide 1 ton of pig iron <ref>Straka 2010, 60</ref>. Places like Hopewell Furnace would use a 30 year cutting cycle which meant they had to use way more land so that the cut trees had plenty of time to regrow. Around 200 acres would be cut annually at Hopewell and 147,000 acres or 230 square miles of forest were harvested annually nationwide which led to obvious cases of forest depletion. In response to the depletion, furnaces and their employees because very strong supporters of forestry early on because of their need for forests to continue supplying wood <ref>Straka 2010, 60</ref>		In 1878, 4 cords worth of charcoal proved to provide 1 ton of pig iron <ref>Straka 2010, 60</ref>. Places like Hopewell Furnace would use a 30 year cutting cycle which meant they had to use way more land so that the cut trees had plenty of time to regrow. Around 200 acres would be cut annually at Hopewell and 147,000 acres or 230 square miles of forest were harvested annually nationwide which led to obvious cases of forest depletion. In response to the depletion, furnaces and their employees because very strong supporters of forestry early on because of their need for forests to continue supplying wood <ref>Straka 2010, 60</ref>

Bigcountry3: drying techniques

2020-09-29T12:27:51Z

drying techniques

← Older revision		Revision as of 12:27, 29 September 2020
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	==Wood==		==Wood==
	Charcoal production involved extensive woodcutting over broad forest areas, often times whole forests were depleted. Wood must be dry before it could be used for [[charcoal production]] and [[iron production]]. Wood cut in the late autumn and early winter proved to hold the least amount of water. For example, wood cut in April would typically contain 10 to 20 percent more water than wood that was cut in January. Wood cut in December and January was more solid and would dry faster<ref>Overman 1854, 80</ref>. Dead or decayed wood was of no use for making charcoal<ref>Overman 1854, 83</ref>.		Charcoal production involved extensive woodcutting over broad forest areas, often times whole forests were depleted. Wood must be dry before it could be used for [[charcoal production]] and [[iron production]]. Wood cut in the late autumn and early winter proved to hold the least amount of water. For example, wood cut in April would typically contain 10 to 20 percent more water than wood that was cut in January. Wood cut in December and January was more solid and would dry faster<ref>Overman 1854, 80</ref>. If the wood was still moist, a collier would allow the wood to air-dry which was more efficient compared to drying the wood in the charcoal pit<ref>Straka 2010, 107</ref>. Dead or decayed wood was of no use for making charcoal<ref>Overman 1854, 83</ref>.

	In 1878, 4 cords worth of charcoal proved to provide 1 ton of pig iron <ref>Straka 2010, 60</ref>. Places like Hopewell Furnace would use a 30 year cutting cycle which meant they had to use way more land so that the cut trees had plenty of time to regrow. Around 200 acres would be cut annually at Hopewell and 147,000 acres or 230 square miles of forest were harvested annually nationwide which led to obvious cases of forest depletion. In response to the depletion, furnaces and their employees because very strong supporters of forestry early on because of their need for forests to continue supplying wood <ref>Straka 2010, 60</ref>		In 1878, 4 cords worth of charcoal proved to provide 1 ton of pig iron <ref>Straka 2010, 60</ref>. Places like Hopewell Furnace would use a 30 year cutting cycle which meant they had to use way more land so that the cut trees had plenty of time to regrow. Around 200 acres would be cut annually at Hopewell and 147,000 acres or 230 square miles of forest were harvested annually nationwide which led to obvious cases of forest depletion. In response to the depletion, furnaces and their employees because very strong supporters of forestry early on because of their need for forests to continue supplying wood <ref>Straka 2010, 60</ref>

Bigcountry3 at 12:20, 29 September 2020

2020-09-29T12:20:23Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 12:20, 29 September 2020
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	==Wood==		==Wood==
	Charcoal production involved extensive woodcutting over broad forest areas, often times whole forests were depleted. Wood must be dry before it could be used for [[charcoal production]] and [[iron production]]. Wood cut in the late autumn and early winter proved to hold the least amount of water. For example, wood cut in April would typically contain 10 to 20 percent more water than wood that was cut in January. Wood cut in December and January was more solid and would dry faster<ref>Overman 1854, 80</ref>. Dead of decayed wood was of no use for making charcoal<ref>Overman 1854, 83</ref>.		Charcoal production involved extensive woodcutting over broad forest areas, often times whole forests were depleted. Wood must be dry before it could be used for [[charcoal production]] and [[iron production]]. Wood cut in the late autumn and early winter proved to hold the least amount of water. For example, wood cut in April would typically contain 10 to 20 percent more water than wood that was cut in January. Wood cut in December and January was more solid and would dry faster<ref>Overman 1854, 80</ref>. Dead or decayed wood was of no use for making charcoal<ref>Overman 1854, 83</ref>.

	In 1878, 4 cords worth of charcoal proved to provide 1 ton of pig iron <ref>Straka 2010, 60</ref>. Places like Hopewell Furnace would use a 30 year cutting cycle which meant they had to use way more land so that the cut trees had plenty of time to regrow. Around 200 acres would be cut annually at Hopewell and 147,000 acres or 230 square miles of forest were harvested annually nationwide which led to obvious cases of forest depletion. In response to the depletion, furnaces and their employees because very strong supporters of forestry early on because of their need for forests to continue supplying wood <ref>Straka 2010, 60</ref>		In 1878, 4 cords worth of charcoal proved to provide 1 ton of pig iron <ref>Straka 2010, 60</ref>. Places like Hopewell Furnace would use a 30 year cutting cycle which meant they had to use way more land so that the cut trees had plenty of time to regrow. Around 200 acres would be cut annually at Hopewell and 147,000 acres or 230 square miles of forest were harvested annually nationwide which led to obvious cases of forest depletion. In response to the depletion, furnaces and their employees because very strong supporters of forestry early on because of their need for forests to continue supplying wood <ref>Straka 2010, 60</ref>

Jakob.kidd: /* Wood */

2020-09-27T22:13:16Z

Wood

← Older revision		Revision as of 22:13, 27 September 2020
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	In 1878, 4 cords worth of charcoal proved to provide 1 ton of pig iron <ref>Straka 2010, 60</ref>. Places like Hopewell Furnace would use a 30 year cutting cycle which meant they had to use way more land so that the cut trees had plenty of time to regrow. Around 200 acres would be cut annually at Hopewell and 147,000 acres or 230 square miles of forest were harvested annually nationwide which led to obvious cases of forest depletion. In response to the depletion, furnaces and their employees because very strong supporters of forestry early on because of their need for forests to continue supplying wood <ref>Straka 2010, 60</ref>		In 1878, 4 cords worth of charcoal proved to provide 1 ton of pig iron <ref>Straka 2010, 60</ref>. Places like Hopewell Furnace would use a 30 year cutting cycle which meant they had to use way more land so that the cut trees had plenty of time to regrow. Around 200 acres would be cut annually at Hopewell and 147,000 acres or 230 square miles of forest were harvested annually nationwide which led to obvious cases of forest depletion. In response to the depletion, furnaces and their employees because very strong supporters of forestry early on because of their need for forests to continue supplying wood <ref>Straka 2010, 60</ref>

	The kind of wood has a major impact on the quality of charcoal. Denser types of woods were preferred to soft woods as they produced more heat and were less friable<ref>Straka 2015, 106</ref>. It has been recorded that sometimes a mixture of soft and hard woods would be used to create charcoal<ref>Straka 2014, 106</ref>. It was also important that the wood being harvested was in good condition, this meant no decaying, knotted or ~~decaying~~ wood<ref>Straka 2014, 106-107</ref>. Optimal size for commercial charcoal is about 25 to 80 mm across the grain<ref>Svedelius 1875</ref>. Most, if not all species of wood can be carbonized to make charcoal.		The kind of wood has a major impact on the quality of charcoal. Denser types of woods were preferred to soft woods as they produced more heat and were less friable<ref>Straka 2015, 106</ref>. It has been recorded that sometimes a mixture of soft and hard woods would be used to create charcoal<ref>Straka 2014, 106</ref>. Even the ground condition for the pit plays a role in the carbonization of wood. A perfectly level ground, free from any draft that is dry and solid is optimal charcoal production <ref>Straka 2010, 107</ref>. It was also important that the wood being harvested was in good condition, this meant no decaying, knotted or defects in the wood<ref>Straka 2014, 106-107</ref>. The season in which the wood is gathered and burned is also very important. Charcoal is usually made in the late summer early fall so that the wood from the previous season has time to dry out <ref>Straka 2010, 107</ref>. Even the condition in which the wood is burning can play a part in the quality of charcoal produced. Things like temperature and wind speed can effect the time it takes for a piece of wood to carbonize <ref>Straka 2010, 107</ref>. Optimal size for commercial charcoal is about 25 to 80 mm across the grain<ref>Svedelius 1875</ref>. Most, if not all species of wood can be carbonized to make charcoal.

	==Woodcutters==		==Woodcutters==

Ebruck at 11:43, 27 September 2020

2020-09-27T11:43:25Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 11:43, 27 September 2020
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	In 1878, 4 cords worth of charcoal proved to provide 1 ton of pig iron <ref>Straka 2010, 60</ref>. Places like Hopewell Furnace would use a 30 year cutting cycle which meant they had to use way more land so that the cut trees had plenty of time to regrow. Around 200 acres would be cut annually at Hopewell and 147,000 acres or 230 square miles of forest were harvested annually nationwide which led to obvious cases of forest depletion. In response to the depletion, furnaces and their employees because very strong supporters of forestry early on because of their need for forests to continue supplying wood <ref>Straka 2010, 60</ref>		In 1878, 4 cords worth of charcoal proved to provide 1 ton of pig iron <ref>Straka 2010, 60</ref>. Places like Hopewell Furnace would use a 30 year cutting cycle which meant they had to use way more land so that the cut trees had plenty of time to regrow. Around 200 acres would be cut annually at Hopewell and 147,000 acres or 230 square miles of forest were harvested annually nationwide which led to obvious cases of forest depletion. In response to the depletion, furnaces and their employees because very strong supporters of forestry early on because of their need for forests to continue supplying wood <ref>Straka 2010, 60</ref>

	The kind of wood has a major impact on the quality of charcoal. Denser types of woods were preferred to soft woods as they produced more heat and were less friable<ref>Straka 2015, 106</ref>. It has been recorded that sometimes a mixture of soft and hard woods would be used to create charcoal<ref>Straka 2014, 106</ref>. It was also important that the wood being harvested was in good condition, this meant no decaying, knotted or decaying wood<ref>Straka 2014, 106-107</ref>. Optimal size for commercial charcoal is about 25 to 80 mm across the grain (Svedelius, 1875). Most, if not all species of wood can be carbonized to make charcoal.		The kind of wood has a major impact on the quality of charcoal. Denser types of woods were preferred to soft woods as they produced more heat and were less friable<ref>Straka 2015, 106</ref>. It has been recorded that sometimes a mixture of soft and hard woods would be used to create charcoal<ref>Straka 2014, 106</ref>. It was also important that the wood being harvested was in good condition, this meant no decaying, knotted or decaying wood<ref>Straka 2014, 106-107</ref>. Optimal size for commercial charcoal is about 25 to 80 mm across the grain<ref>Svedelius 1875</ref>. Most, if not all species of wood can be carbonized to make charcoal.

	==Woodcutters==		==Woodcutters==
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	*Straka, Thomas J., and Wayne C. Ramer. 2010. “History on the Road: Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site.” Forest History Today Spring/Fall: 58–62. https://foresthistory.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/2010_History-on-Road.pdf		*Straka, Thomas J., and Wayne C. Ramer. 2010. “History on the Road: Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site.” Forest History Today Spring/Fall: 58–62. https://foresthistory.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/2010_History-on-Road.pdf

			*Svedelius, G. (1875). Hand-Book for Charcoal Burners. New York: John Wiley & Son

	* Walker, Joseph E. 1966. ''Hopewell Village; a Social and Economic History of an Iron-Making Community.'' Philadelphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press.		* Walker, Joseph E. 1966. ''Hopewell Village; a Social and Economic History of an Iron-Making Community.'' Philadelphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press.