Iron production - Revision history

Sam1125: Edited wording and phrases. Also fixed formatting errors for multiple intext citations

2020-12-02T18:09:41Z

Edited wording and phrases. Also fixed formatting errors for multiple intext citations

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Sam1125: Edited wording and phrases. Also fixed formatting errors for multiple intext citations

2020-12-02T17:49:04Z

Edited wording and phrases. Also fixed formatting errors for multiple intext citations

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Sam1125: added notes

2020-10-01T16:00:34Z

added notes

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	==Fuel==		==Fuel==
	Prior to the 1830s, every furnace in the US burned charcoal as fuel. Charcoal was used because it could be produced in large quantities, it burns hotter than wood, and it is almost pure carbon, so it reduces impurities in iron produced<ref>McVarish 2008, 260</ref>. To make charcoal, a variety of methods were used including hearths and kilns. Hearths were generally used in the pre-Civil War period and involved burning wood in earth-covered mounds. These hearths produced weak charcoal that would crumble easily<ref>McVarish 2008, 262</ref>. Charcoal kilns were made of brick and were more efficient. They also created more durable charcoal than hearths, which yielded charcoal that was more brittle<ref>McVarish 2008, 262</ref>. Kiln remains vary greatly. Smaller remains are usually those of farm kilns, which can be found at the base of hills with roads nearby, while larger remains oriented with a square stone base and occasional steel shells surrounding the base are commercial kilns, and usually placed near railroads. Commercial kiln locations can be found on historical maps from the nineteenth and early twentieth century<ref>McVarish 2008, 265</ref>. Early finers had to use about to 2 to 3 pounds of charcoal in order to produce a pound of iron<ref>McVarish 2008, 268</ref>.Around the 1860s, coal and coke began to replace charcoal in some areas<ref>McVarish 2008, 267</ref>; but overall, iron production increased so much that the use of charcoal continued to rise until 1890. Around the same time perpetual kilns were introduced. These kilns can be characterized by three types of operation, mixed feed, separate-feed, and rotary kilns. Mix feed kilns were the most difficult to manage, the limestone and fuel had to be fed in alternative layers. When running favorable these kilns were the most economically favorable. The next type of kiln is the separate feed kiln. These became the first modern lime kiln which use limestone and fuel not in direct contact. The last type is rotary kilns. These kilns required that the limestone be crushed fairly small and even. One downside for rotary kilns is that they use a lot of fuel<ref>Straka 2014, 264</ref>. The last charcoal-powered furnace in the United States was in blast until 1945<ref>Straka 2014, 104</ref>.		Prior to the 1830s, every furnace in the US burned charcoal as fuel. Charcoal was used because it could be produced in large quantities, it burns hotter than wood, and it is almost pure carbon, so it reduces impurities in iron produced<ref>McVarish 2008, 260</ref>. To make charcoal, a variety of methods were used including hearths and kilns. Hearths were generally used in the pre-Civil War period and involved burning wood in earth-covered mounds. These hearths produced weak charcoal that would crumble easily<ref>McVarish 2008, 262</ref>. Charcoal kilns were made of brick and were more efficient. They also created more durable charcoal than hearths, which yielded charcoal that was more brittle<ref>McVarish 2008, 262</ref>. Kiln remains vary greatly. Smaller remains are usually those of farm kilns, which can be found at the base of hills with roads nearby, while larger remains oriented with a square stone base and occasional steel shells surrounding the base are commercial kilns, and usually placed near railroads. Commercial kiln locations can be found on historical maps from the nineteenth and early twentieth century<ref>McVarish 2008, 265</ref>. Early finers had to use about to 2 to 3 pounds of charcoal in order to produce a pound of iron<ref>McVarish 2008, 268</ref>.Around the 1860s, coal and coke began to replace charcoal in some areas<ref>McVarish 2008, 267</ref>; but overall, iron production increased so much that the use of charcoal continued to rise until 1890. At this time charcoal began to decline in use and instead coke furnaces were taking the front stage. By the 1890s there were less than 100 charcoal furnaces in use<ref>McVarish 2008,263 </ref>. Coke furnaces were larger and like their charcoal fueled relatives, would need to have air being blown into the furnace so that it is able to continuously operate for months on end. Around the same time perpetual kilns were introduced. These kilns can be characterized by three types of operation, mixed feed, separate-feed, and rotary kilns. Mix feed kilns were the most difficult to manage, the limestone and fuel had to be fed in alternative layers. When running favorable these kilns were the most economically favorable. The next type of kiln is the separate feed kiln. These became the first modern lime kiln which use limestone and fuel not in direct contact. The last type is rotary kilns. These kilns are horizontal and resemble long pipes that rotate on rollers<ref>McVarish 2008, 264</ref>. They required that the limestone be crushed fairly small and even. One downside for rotary kilns is that they use a lot of fuel<ref>Straka 2014, 264</ref>. The last charcoal-powered furnace in the United States was in blast until 1945<ref>Straka 2014, 104</ref>.
	Charcoal pits produced weak charcoal that would easily crumble when it was put in the blast furnace, while charcoal kilns produced more durable charcoal (McVarish p. 262)		Charcoal pits produced weak charcoal that would easily crumble when it was put in the blast furnace, while charcoal kilns produced more durable charcoal (McVarish p. 262)

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	==The Furnace==		==The Furnace==
	The upper portion of the furnace was conical in shape. The walls had an inner and outer layer; the outer was usually made of granite or slate, while the inner was usually made of sandstone or firebrick because of these substances' durability to withstand high temperatures<ref>McVarish 2008, 266</ref>. Between the two walls was an eight-inch space filled with stone chips or broken cinder-blocks. This space allowed the inner wall to expand and contract comfortably without bursting the outer wall. The area where workers would empty wheelbarrows full of iron ore was called the "trunnel head" or "throat." The opening above the hearth of the shaft below the trunnel head was called the bosh, which supported the furnace burden while funneling the molten slag<ref>McVarish 2008, 266</ref>. The taper of the shaft, bosh, and crucible was entirely dependent on the type of ore smelted, charcoal quality, and what quality of iron was desired as the finished product. In the United States, a straight, uniform forty to fifty foot stack was needed when hydrates and oxides of iron were smelted. Heat-exchanges, or hot blast stoves, were installed in the nineteenth century to increase efficiency. By the early twentieth century, the iron furnaces were forced to change due to the moving times. They grew to be about eighty feet tall; the shape and proportion of the hearth and bosh and the addition of a bellhopper to the trunnel head allowed for the use of new materials<ref>McVarish 2008, 267</ref>.		The upper portion of the furnace was conical in shape. The walls had an inner and outer layer; the outer was usually made of granite or slate, while the inner was usually made of sandstone or firebrick because of these substances' durability to withstand high temperatures<ref>McVarish 2008, 266</ref>. Between the two walls was an eight-inch space filled with stone chips or broken cinder-blocks. This space allowed the inner wall to expand and contract comfortably without bursting the outer wall. The area where workers would empty wheelbarrows full of iron ore was called the "trunnel head" or "throat." The opening above the hearth of the shaft below the trunnel head was called the bosh, which supported the furnace burden while funneling the molten slag<ref>McVarish 2008, 266</ref>. The taper of the shaft, bosh, and crucible was entirely dependent on the type of ore smelted, charcoal quality, and what quality of iron was desired as the finished product. In the United States, a straight, uniform forty to fifty foot stack was needed when hydrates and oxides of iron were smelted. Heat-exchanges, or hot blast stoves, were installed in the nineteenth century to increase efficiency. By the early twentieth century, the iron furnaces were forced to change due to the moving times. They grew to be about eighty feet tall; the shape and proportion of the hearth and bosh and the addition of a bellhopper to the trunnel head allowed for the use of new materials<ref>McVarish 2008, 267</ref>.
	As coke-burning furnaces were built, the demand for charcoal declined. The transition to coke fuel caused some modifications to the furnaces's structure<ref>McVarish 2008, 267</ref>. Coke powered furnaces were typically taller ~~and~~ and had higher blast pressure than their charcoal counterparts<ref>McVarish 2008, 267</ref>.. There were approximately 500 in the 1860s, but by 1900 there were less than 50. (McVarish p. 263) Americans left the English practice by adopting gas fired furnaces soon as they started making crucible steel.<ref>McVarish 2008, 271</ref>		As coke-burning furnaces were built, the demand for charcoal declined. The transition to coke fuel caused some modifications to the furnaces's structure<ref>McVarish 2008, 267</ref>. Coke powered furnaces were typically taller and had higher blast pressure than their charcoal counterparts<ref>McVarish 2008, 267</ref>.. There were approximately 500 in the 1860s, but by 1900 there were less than 50. (McVarish p. 263) Americans left the English practice by adopting gas fired furnaces soon as they started making crucible steel.<ref>McVarish 2008, 271</ref>

	==Workers==		==Workers==

Ajroberts2021: /* The Furnace */

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The Furnace

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	==The Furnace==		==The Furnace==
	The upper portion of the furnace was conical in shape. The walls had an inner and outer layer; the outer was usually made of granite or slate, while the inner was usually made of sandstone or firebrick because of these substances' durability to withstand high temperatures<ref>McVarish 2008, 266</ref>. Between the two walls was an eight-inch space filled with stone chips or broken cinder-blocks. This space allowed the inner wall to expand and contract comfortably without bursting the outer wall. The area where workers would empty wheelbarrows full of iron ore was called the "trunnel head" or "throat." The opening above the hearth of the shaft below the trunnel head was called the bosh, which supported the furnace burden while funneling the molten slag<ref>McVarish 2008, 266</ref>. The taper of the shaft, bosh, and crucible was entirely dependent on the type of ore smelted, charcoal quality, and what quality of iron was desired as the finished product. In the United States, a straight, uniform forty to fifty foot stack was needed when hydrates and oxides of iron were smelted. Heat-exchanges, or hot blast stoves, were installed in the nineteenth century to increase efficiency. By the early twentieth century, the iron furnaces were forced to change due to the moving times. They grew to be about eighty feet tall; the shape and proportion of the hearth and bosh and the addition of a bellhopper to the trunnel head allowed for the use of new materials<ref>McVarish 2008, 267</ref>.		The upper portion of the furnace was conical in shape. The walls had an inner and outer layer; the outer was usually made of granite or slate, while the inner was usually made of sandstone or firebrick because of these substances' durability to withstand high temperatures<ref>McVarish 2008, 266</ref>. Between the two walls was an eight-inch space filled with stone chips or broken cinder-blocks. This space allowed the inner wall to expand and contract comfortably without bursting the outer wall. The area where workers would empty wheelbarrows full of iron ore was called the "trunnel head" or "throat." The opening above the hearth of the shaft below the trunnel head was called the bosh, which supported the furnace burden while funneling the molten slag<ref>McVarish 2008, 266</ref>. The taper of the shaft, bosh, and crucible was entirely dependent on the type of ore smelted, charcoal quality, and what quality of iron was desired as the finished product. In the United States, a straight, uniform forty to fifty foot stack was needed when hydrates and oxides of iron were smelted. Heat-exchanges, or hot blast stoves, were installed in the nineteenth century to increase efficiency. By the early twentieth century, the iron furnaces were forced to change due to the moving times. They grew to be about eighty feet tall; the shape and proportion of the hearth and bosh and the addition of a bellhopper to the trunnel head allowed for the use of new materials<ref>McVarish 2008, 267</ref>.
	As coke-burning furnaces were built, the demand for charcoal declined. The transition to coke fuel caused some modifications to the furnaces's structure<ref>McVarish 2008, 267</ref>. Coke powered furnaces were typically taller and and had higher blast pressure than their charcoal counterparts<ref>McVarish 2008, 267</ref>.. There were approximately 500 in the 1860s, but by 1900 there were less than 50. (McVarish p. 263)		As coke-burning furnaces were built, the demand for charcoal declined. The transition to coke fuel caused some modifications to the furnaces's structure<ref>McVarish 2008, 267</ref>. Coke powered furnaces were typically taller and and had higher blast pressure than their charcoal counterparts<ref>McVarish 2008, 267</ref>.. There were approximately 500 in the 1860s, but by 1900 there were less than 50. (McVarish p. 263) Americans left the English practice by adopting gas fired furnaces soon as they started making crucible steel.<ref>McVarish 2008, 271</ref>

	==Workers==		==Workers==

Bigcountry3: /* Forging */

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Forging

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	===Forging===		===Forging===
	Forging produced wrought iron using blooms and rods by effectively hammering. Large hammers between fifty and four hundred pounds could be used; lighter hammers typically produced smaller things. Forging hammers were automated by waterwheel or steam power, and could strike up to two hundred and fifty times per minute<ref>McVarish 2008, 271</ref>.		Forging produced wrought iron using blooms and rods by effectively hammering. Large hammers between fifty and four hundred pounds could be used; lighter hammers typically produced smaller things. Forging hammers were later automated by the waterwheel and steam power. If the motive
			power was water, a waterwheel was directly fastened to the shaft. If the motive power was steam, a flywheel was attached and the power conveyed by leather straps or belt<ref>McVarish 2008, 270</ref>. With these processes, the automated hammer could strike up to two hundred and fifty times per minute with around 50 pounds of force<ref>McVarish 2008, 271</ref>.

	A finer would burn about 2 to 3 pounds of charcoal for every pound of iron made. (McVarish, p. 268)		A finer would burn about 2 to 3 pounds of charcoal for every pound of iron made. (McVarish, p. 268)

Bigcountry3: Additional information

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Additional information

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	The Fining Process was brought to the United States in the seventeenth-century. Finer workers would melt pig iron and allow the carbon to oxidize. The iron gathered into a mass called a loup and was then hammered until the slag was removed<ref>McVarish 2008, 268</ref>. These early iron masters had to use charcoal as their main source of fuel as no effective way to use coal as a fuel had been developed yet<ref>McVarish 2008, 268</ref>. For each pound of iron produced a finer had to burn about 2 to 3 pounds of charcoal for fuel<ref>McVarish 2008, 268</ref>.		The Fining Process was brought to the United States in the seventeenth-century. Finer workers would melt pig iron and allow the carbon to oxidize. The iron gathered into a mass called a loup and was then hammered until the slag was removed<ref>McVarish 2008, 268</ref>. These early iron masters had to use charcoal as their main source of fuel as no effective way to use coal as a fuel had been developed yet<ref>McVarish 2008, 268</ref>. For each pound of iron produced a finer had to burn about 2 to 3 pounds of charcoal for fuel<ref>McVarish 2008, 268</ref>.
	===Walloon Process===		===Walloon Process===
	The Walloon Process was the original fining technique. The Walloon Process involved pushing a pig of iron into a hearth full of charcoal at a downward angle to melt it, working it into a loup, and hammering it to expel slag. The melted metal was then collected from the bottom of the hearth and brought it into the air blast<ref>McVarish, 2008, 268</ref>. From here the finer kept the metal in the air blast until they were ~~convince dthat~~ all the silicon and carbon had already oxidized <ref>McVarish, 2008, 268</ref>. It was after the oxidation that the metal was worked into a loup and then hammered to remove the slag<ref>McVarish, 2008, 268</ref>. Occasionally the loup was reheated during the hammering process<ref>McVarish, 2008, 268</ref>. The Walloon Process required a lot of air to heat the flames and the quality of wrought iron produced was heavily dependent on the skill of the workers making it<ref>McVarish, 2008, 268</ref>.		The Walloon Process was the original fining technique. The Walloon Process involved pushing a pig of iron into a hearth full of charcoal at a downward angle to melt it, working it into a loup, and hammering it to expel slag. The melted metal was then collected from the bottom of the hearth and brought it into the air blast<ref>McVarish, 2008, 268</ref>. This air blast came about through the tuyere, a nozzle usually constructed of iron<ref>McVarish, 2008, 285</ref>. From here the finer kept the metal in the air blast until they were convinced that all the silicon and carbon had already oxidized <ref>McVarish, 2008, 268</ref>. It was after the oxidation that the metal was worked into a loup and then hammered to remove the slag<ref>McVarish, 2008, 268</ref>. Occasionally the loup was reheated during the hammering process<ref>McVarish, 2008, 268</ref>. The Walloon Process required a lot of air to heat the flames and the quality of wrought iron produced was heavily dependent on the skill of the workers making it<ref>McVarish, 2008, 268</ref>.

	===Lancashire (Charcoal Hearth) Process===		===Lancashire (Charcoal Hearth) Process===

Bigcountry3: Fixed awkward sentence

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Fixed awkward sentence

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	===Blast Furnace===		===Blast Furnace===
	~~Blast~~ furnaces addressed many of the disadvantages of bloomeries~~, as blast~~ furnaces ~~could be~~ run continuously for months at at time, ~~conserved~~ heat, and ~~could~~ produce much ~~more iron~~. A blast furnace would have been constructed in a dry location that was not prone to flooding<ref>Overman 1854, 153</ref>. After establishing a location that fit this criteria, the ground would be excavated to ensure that it could support the weight of the stack<ref>Overman 1854, 153-154</ref>. The foundation for the furnace would be constructed so that an additional foot of foundation would extend past the base of the furnace in all directions<ref>Overman 1854, 154</ref>. Blast furnaces were vertical, hollow structures, the top of which would be loaded with ore, fuel, and flux. The bottom had air vents and a hole for the molten iron to run out. Blast furnaces tended to be constructed twenty-five to thirty feet high when they first came into use, and eventually grew to be thirty-two to forty feet high during the nineteenth century with a conical shape on top<ref>McVarish 2008, 262</ref>.		The introduction of the blast furnaces addressed many of the disadvantages of bloomeries. Blast furnaces had the ability to run continuously for months at at time, conserve heat, and produce a much greater output. A blast furnace would have been constructed in a dry location that was not prone to flooding<ref>Overman 1854, 153</ref>. After establishing a location that fit this criteria, the ground would be excavated to ensure that it could support the weight of the stack<ref>Overman 1854, 153-154</ref>. The foundation for the furnace would be constructed so that an additional foot of foundation would extend past the base of the furnace in all directions<ref>Overman 1854, 154</ref>. Blast furnaces were vertical, hollow structures, the top of which would be loaded with ore, fuel, and flux. The bottom had air vents and a hole for the molten iron to run out. Blast furnaces tended to be constructed twenty-five to thirty feet high when they first came into use, and eventually grew to be thirty-two to forty feet high during the nineteenth century with a conical shape on top<ref>McVarish 2008, 262</ref>.

	The blast furnaces had very thick stone walls with fire-resistant interior lining. A layer between the lining and outer stones — usually made of clay or smaller stones — provided better insulation and allowed the inner walls to expand slightly when heated<ref>McVarish 2008, 262</ref>. The outer wall was generally constructed of any stone, often granite, grauwach (a dark coarsegrained sedimentary stone), or slate<ref>McVarish 2008, 266</ref>. The inner walls of the furnace were essential to build adequately as it had to stand up to high heat over long periods of time. The hearths in the blast furnaces were typically constructed from sandstone<ref>Overman 1854, 183-184</ref>. Bellows, which pumped air into the furnace to feed the flames, were often powered by waterwheels, equal to about twenty horsepower. By adjusting ventilation, the temperature inside blast furnaces could be controlled to a degree. Blast furnaces were loaded from the top and therefore were often located along hillsides. When the molten iron was ready to be collected, or tapped, a smaller hole at the top was opened to allow the liquid slag, which sat on top of the iron because it was lighter, to be drawn away. After the slag was collected, the main plug was pulled, and the molten iron ran into sand molds. The iron produced in blast furnaces is called pig iron because the final product resembles piglets suckling on their mother. After the iron ran into the molds and was cooled, the "pigs" were broken off the "sows." These smaller pieces were more valuable than the metal in the runners which would need to be remelted<ref>McVarish 2008, 265</ref>. In Pennsylvania, furnaces made roughly ten to twenty-five tons of pig iron or castings per week, with the latter amount rarely being attained<ref>Swank 1884, 35</ref>. By the nineteenth century, the reduction of iron took place almost exclusively in blast furnaces.		The blast furnaces had very thick stone walls with fire-resistant interior lining. A layer between the lining and outer stones — usually made of clay or smaller stones — provided better insulation and allowed the inner walls to expand slightly when heated<ref>McVarish 2008, 262</ref>. The outer wall was generally constructed of any stone, often granite, grauwach (a dark coarsegrained sedimentary stone), or slate<ref>McVarish 2008, 266</ref>. The inner walls of the furnace were essential to build adequately as it had to stand up to high heat over long periods of time. The hearths in the blast furnaces were typically constructed from sandstone<ref>Overman 1854, 183-184</ref>. Bellows, which pumped air into the furnace to feed the flames, were often powered by waterwheels, equal to about twenty horsepower. By adjusting ventilation, the temperature inside blast furnaces could be controlled to a degree. Blast furnaces were loaded from the top and therefore were often located along hillsides. When the molten iron was ready to be collected, or tapped, a smaller hole at the top was opened to allow the liquid slag, which sat on top of the iron because it was lighter, to be drawn away. After the slag was collected, the main plug was pulled, and the molten iron ran into sand molds. The iron produced in blast furnaces is called pig iron because the final product resembles piglets suckling on their mother. After the iron ran into the molds and was cooled, the "pigs" were broken off the "sows." These smaller pieces were more valuable than the metal in the runners which would need to be remelted<ref>McVarish 2008, 265</ref>. In Pennsylvania, furnaces made roughly ten to twenty-five tons of pig iron or castings per week, with the latter amount rarely being attained<ref>Swank 1884, 35</ref>. By the nineteenth century, the reduction of iron took place almost exclusively in blast furnaces.

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Added citation

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	===Bloomery===		===Bloomery===
	A bloomery was a small operation that heated iron ore to refine and shape it, which produced wrought iron<ref>McVarish 2008, 259</ref>. Bloomeries needed simple equipment like a hearth, bellows, and tools for manipulating the iron. They had to simultaneously accomplish two tasks: reducing the iron oxides in the ore to metal, and also to separate the metal from the gangue in the ore<ref>McVarish 2008, 260</ref>. Bloomeries were common in colonial America, specifically in Massachusetts, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. They operated between the seventeenth and twentieth centuries. Some disadvantages of bloomeries included limited production, wasted heat, and an inability to completely separate the iron from slag<ref>McVarish 2008, 260</ref>. Because bloomeries were a small operation, they created limited production. A bloomery could be able to supply a small blacksmith with what they need to satisfy local customers but never enough to satisfy a market.<ref>McVarish 2008, 260</ref> A bloomery cannot run continuously like blast furnace and because when the bloomer had to remove the loup from the hearth, thermal energy was wasted.<ref>McVarish 2008, 260</ref>.		A bloomery was a small operation that heated iron ore to refine and shape it, which produced wrought iron<ref>McVarish 2008, 259</ref>. Bloomeries needed simple equipment like a hearth, bellows, and tools for manipulating the iron<ref>McVarish 2008, 260</ref>. They had to simultaneously accomplish two tasks: reducing the iron oxides in the ore to metal, and also to separate the metal from the gangue in the ore<ref>McVarish 2008, 260</ref>. Bloomeries were common in colonial America, specifically in Massachusetts, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. They operated between the seventeenth and twentieth centuries. Some disadvantages of bloomeries included limited production, wasted heat, and an inability to completely separate the iron from slag<ref>McVarish 2008, 260</ref>. Because bloomeries were a small operation, they created limited production. A bloomery could be able to supply a small blacksmith with what they need to satisfy local customers but never enough to satisfy a market.<ref>McVarish 2008, 260</ref> A bloomery cannot run continuously like blast furnace and because when the bloomer had to remove the loup from the hearth, thermal energy was wasted.<ref>McVarish 2008, 260</ref>.

Ajroberts2021: /* Forging */

2020-10-01T02:40:30Z

Forging

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	A finer would burn about 2 to 3 pounds of charcoal for every pound of iron made. (McVarish, p. 268)		A finer would burn about 2 to 3 pounds of charcoal for every pound of iron made. (McVarish, p. 268)
			Artisans found that iron and steel were easier to mold when hot. For a more efficient use, English engineers created a looping mill to better mold the iron and steel. <ref>McVarish 2008, 280</ref>

	==The Furnace==		==The Furnace==

Ajroberts2021: /* Bloomery */

2020-10-01T02:33:14Z

Bloomery

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	===Bloomery===		===Bloomery===
	A bloomery was a small operation that heated iron ore to refine and shape it, which produced wrought iron<ref>McVarish 2008, 259</ref>. Bloomeries needed simple equipment like a hearth, bellows, and tools for manipulating the iron. They had to simultaneously accomplish two tasks: reducing the iron oxides in the ore to metal, and also to separate the metal from the gangue in the ore<ref>McVarish 2008, 260</ref>. Bloomeries were common in colonial America, specifically in Massachusetts, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. They operated between the seventeenth and twentieth centuries. Some disadvantages of bloomeries included limited production, wasted heat, and an inability to completely separate the iron from slag<ref>McVarish 2008, 260</ref>. Because bloomeries were a small operation, they created limited production. A bloomery could be able to supply a small blacksmith with what they need to satisfy local customers but never enough to satisfy a market.<ref>McVarish 2008, 260</ref>		A bloomery was a small operation that heated iron ore to refine and shape it, which produced wrought iron<ref>McVarish 2008, 259</ref>. Bloomeries needed simple equipment like a hearth, bellows, and tools for manipulating the iron. They had to simultaneously accomplish two tasks: reducing the iron oxides in the ore to metal, and also to separate the metal from the gangue in the ore<ref>McVarish 2008, 260</ref>. Bloomeries were common in colonial America, specifically in Massachusetts, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. They operated between the seventeenth and twentieth centuries. Some disadvantages of bloomeries included limited production, wasted heat, and an inability to completely separate the iron from slag<ref>McVarish 2008, 260</ref>. Because bloomeries were a small operation, they created limited production. A bloomery could be able to supply a small blacksmith with what they need to satisfy local customers but never enough to satisfy a market.<ref>McVarish 2008, 260</ref> A bloomery cannot run continuously like blast furnace and because when the bloomer had to remove the loup from the hearth, thermal energy was wasted.<ref>McVarish 2008, 260</ref>.