Charcoal production

In nineteenth century Pennsylvania, charcoal was produced primarily to fuel iron production. Charcoal is the result of the destructive distillation of wood to yield a fuel that is primarily carbon. In the 19th century, when iron production was at its peak, the demand for charcoal as fuel for furnaces had an impact on forests. As a result, the charcoal industry was one of the first to think about sustainability and forestry.

Types of Wood

Generally, hard woods produced the best charcoal. Trees like oak, hickory, chestnut, and elm were greatly preferred to softer woods, like gum and poplar.

Making the Hearth

Charcoal hearths require a large flat area. They are often placed on hillsides to facilitate dirt movement and are usually round. In the center of the hearth, a triangular chimney is made from stacked wood. In the chimney, a large stick called the Fagan pole is inserted. The Fagan pole is used to mark the center of the pit and can be also be used to gauge how far down in the pit the charring is taking place.

Piling the Wood

After making the chimney and the pole, the collier leans pieces of hardwood around the chimney. Hardwood was the preferred type of wood to use in charcoal production because it was denser and therefore more conducive to the iron-making process.

Covering the Wood

The wood in the hearth is first covered with a layer of leaves or straw. Then, that is covered with dirt. The leaves and straw act as a barrier between the wood and the dirt, helping to ensure even charring of the wood.

Igniting the Wood

To ignite the wood, kindling wood is put up to the top of the the chimney. Then, hot coals are dropped into the chimney and the opening is covered with a piece called the "bridgen." The bridgen is then covered with leaves and straw.

Ending the Burn

The burn was ended before all the charcoal was finished burning because this helped Colliers maximize production.

Removing the Charcoal

To remove the finished charcoal, colliers used a large rake with long times. The tines ensure that the pieces of charcoal are dragged through the dirt on their way out of the hearth. This makes sure that no fires flare up and destroy the charcoal.

Sustainability

The need for charcoal in the iron industry created a significant demand for wood and a great deal of trees were chopped down for its production. One furnace required about 5,000 cords of wood to run in a year. Several early proponents of sustainable forestry were involved in the making of charcoal, like Bernhard E. Fernow, the manager of the Lehigh Furnace from 1879 to 1883. He advocated for coppicing of wood and protection from fire and cattle grazing to speed up regrowth of forest used for charcoal.

Charcoal v. Coal

The transition to coal as the primary fuel for furnaces began around 1840, but in 1859 around three-quarters of furnaces in America (particularly in Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York) still primarily used charcoal. Charcoal remained a source of fuel in some places until 1945.

Charcoal tended to produce a higher quality of iron than coal, partially because of its density. Iron made from charcoal had a "fine grain" compared to iron made by coal and maintained a better cutting edge.

Collier Life

The public's general impression of Colliers was that they were dirty and uncivilized. The collier profession, though, was not one for the faint of heart, as great skill was required in order to successfully maintain multiple charcoal hearths at one time for months on end. Living alone, or occasionally with a son or friend, colliers couldn't afford to lose concentration or dedication for even one moment, as the slightest wayward breeze or hole in the charcoal hearth could cause irreparable damage. This profession required almost constant twenty-four-hour surveillance of the hearths. The most dangerous job of a collier was called "jumping the pit."This crucial job required a collier to climb up onto the hearth and pack down the dirt as best they could. If anything went awry, they risked falling into the smoldering charcoal fire. Colliers resided in huts laid out in a circle and framed by wood, insulated later on with mud, leaves, and dirt. There was oftentimes a large stone hearth or fireplace in the corner used for cooking and heating.

References

• "Agriculture andrRural economy – Charcoal → ." The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project. Ann Arbor: Michigan Publishing, University of Michigan Library, 2010. http://hdl.handle.net/2027/spo.did2222.0001.346 (accessed [fill in today's date in the form April 18, 2009 and remove square brackets]). Originally published as "Agriculture et économie rustique – Charbon de bois," Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, vol. 1 (plates) (Paris, 1762).

• Jones, Claude A. 1976. “Making Charcoal at Jacobsburg.” In Slate Belt Bicentennial Heritage, edited by Marjorie May, Maryann Repsher, Robert R. Saltern, Gordon E. Wilson, and Albert M. Toth, 32–33. Heritage Committee of the Slate Belt Bicentennial Commission.

• Straka, Thomas J., and Wayne C. Ramer. 2010. “History on the Road: Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site.” Forest History Today Spring/Fall: 58–62. https://foresthistory.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/2010_History-on-Road.pdf

• Wagner, Van. 2008. Fire the Pit- Charcoal Production in Pennsylvania. 4 vols. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RxW7g3IwD1k ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xVE_7hMLMZU ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=88FbebFElaY ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ghj2p9rrUmM.