Charcoal production

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Background

In nineteenth century Pennsylvania, charcoal was produced primarily to fuel iron production. Charcoal is the result of the destructive distillation of wood to yield a fuel that is primarily carbon. In the 19th century, when iron production was at its peak, the demand for charcoal as fuel for furnaces directly impacted forests. As a result, the charcoal industry was one of the first to think about sustainability and forestry.

Types of Wood

While most types of wood can become charcoal, hard woods generally produced the best quality charcoal. Trees like oak, hickory, chestnut, and elm were greatly preferred to softer woods, such as gum and poplar[1]. However, heavier hardwood required a longer burning period, so sometimes a mixture of hardwood and softwood proved to be a combination that yielded the greatest quantity of charcoal without compromising the integrity of the material. The condition of wood was also important to the quality of the charcoal output, as knots in the wood, decay, and moisture all negatively impacted carbonization.

Sustainability

The need for charcoal in the iron industry created a significant demand for wood, resulting in a great number of trees being chopped down for its production. The average output of furnaces between 1750 and 1800 was 100 to 400 tons of pig iron per year. This required 200 - 400 bushels of charcoal and 50 acres of trees to produce that amount[2]. Even though the increased efficiency of furnaces decreased the necessary amount of charcoal, increased production required 150 acres of wood by 1850 and 1,400 acres by 1900[3].

Making the Hearth

Charcoal hearths required a large, flat area[4]. They are often placed on hillsides to facilitate dirt movement and are usually round. In the center of the hearth, a triangular chimney is made from stacked wood. In the chimney, a large stick called the Fagan pole is inserted. The Fagan pole is used to mark the center of the pit and can be also be removed to provide drought during the process[5].

Piling the Wood

After making the chimney and the pole, the collier leans pieces of hardwood around the chimney. Hardwood was the preferred type of wood to use in charcoal production because it was denser and therefore more conducive to the iron-making process[6].

Covering the Wood

The wood in the hearth is first covered with a layer of leaves or straw. Then, a layer of charcoal dust and dirt is added. The leaves act as a barrier between the wood and the dirt, helping to ensure even charring of the wood by restricting air flow[7].

Igniting the Wood

Charcoal hearths were likely lit at the top and burned downwards[8]. To ignite the wood, kindling wood is put up to the top of the the chimney. Then, hot coals are dropped into the chimney and the opening is covered with a piece called the "bridgen." The bridgen is then covered with leaves and straw[9].

The process typically took between ten to fourteen days; however, if conditions were unfavorable, the burning period could take three weeks[10].

Ending the Burn

The burn was ended before all the charcoal was finished burning because this helped Colliers maximize production[11].

Removing the Charcoal

To remove the finished charcoal, colliers used a large rake with long times. The tines ensure that the pieces of charcoal are dragged through the dirt on their way out of the hearth. This makes sure that no fires flare up and destroy the charcoal[12].

Sustainability

The need for charcoal in the iron industry created a significant demand for wood and a great deal of trees were chopped down for its production. The average output of furnaces between 1750 and 1800 was 100 5o 400 tons of pig iron per year. This required 200 - 400 bushels of charcoal and 50 acres of trees to produce that amount[13]. Even though the increased efficiency of furnaces decreased the necessary amount of charcoal, increased production required 150 acres of wood by 1850 and 1,400 acres by 1900[14]. Since forests regenerated at different rates, this impacted sustainability. In the Western United States, woodlands took decades to regrow to maturity so woodlands could be depleted in a decade. On the other hand, Eastern furnaces were some of the first to manage forests to ensure a sustainable yield[15]. Several early proponents of sustainable forestry were involved in the making of charcoal, like Bernhard E. Fernow, the manager of the Lehigh Furnace from 1879 to 1883. He advocated for coppicing of wood and protection from fire and cattle grazing to speed up regrowth of forest used for charcoal.

Charcoal versus Coal

The transition to coal as the primary fuel for furnaces began around 1840, but in 1859 around three-quarters of furnaces in America (particularly in Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York) still primarily used charcoal. Charcoal remained a source of fuel in some places until 1945.

Charcoal, compared to coal, tended to produce a higher quality of iron with fewer impurities, partially because of its density[16]. The use of charcoal also created less smoke using the production process[17]. Iron made from charcoal had a "fine grain," and maintained a better cutting edge[18]. Hoever, as coal became the primary source of fuel, production moved out of the forests and into cities, which allowed the forests to begin to recover from the impacts of charcoal production.

Collier Life

The public's general impression of Colliers was that they were dirty and uncivilized. Historically, the collier profession, was not one for the faint of heart, as great skill was required in order to successfully maintain multiple charcoal hearths at one time for months on end[19]. Living alone, or occasionally with a son or apprentice, colliers couldn't afford to lose concentration or dedication for even one moment, as the slightest wayward breeze or hole in the charcoal hearth could cause irreparable damage[20] This profession required almost constant twenty-four-hour surveillance of the hearths [1] The most dangerous job of a collier was called"jumping the pit." This crucial job required a collier to climb up onto the hearth and pack down the dirt as best they could. If anything went awry, they risked falling into the smoldering charcoal fire[21]. While making charcoal, colliers lived in Collier huts. In the winter months, Colliers became wood-cutters in order to get a full-years wage, as the ideal season to make charcoal was during the warmer months so that the production of charcoal could continue when it grew warm[22].

Notes

  1. ↑ Straka and Ramer 2010, 59
  2. ↑ Straka 2014, 105
  3. ↑ Straka 2014, 106
  4. ↑ Straka and Ramer 2010, 61
  5. ↑ Straka and Ramer 2010, 61
  6. ↑ Straka and Ramer 2010, 59
  7. ↑ Straka and Ramer 2010, 61
  8. ↑ Straka, 2014, 107
  9. ↑ Wagner, 2008
  10. ↑ Straka and Ramer 2010, 61
  11. ↑ Wagner, 2008
  12. ↑ Wagner, 2008
  13. ↑ Straka 2014, 105
  14. ↑ Straka 2014, 106
  15. ↑ Straka 2014, 111
  16. ↑ Straka and Ramer, 2010, 59
  17. ↑ Straka and Ramer, 2010, 59
  18. ↑ Straka and Ramer 2010, 59
  19. ↑ Straka and Ramer 2010, 60
  20. ↑ Wager, 2008
  21. ↑ Straka and Ramer 2010, 60
  22. ↑ Kemper, 1941, 10

References

  • Agriculture and Rural economy – Charcoal → . 2010. The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project. Ann Arbor: Michigan Publishing, University of Michigan Library. http://hdl.handle.net/2027/spo.did2222.0001.346 (accessed [fill in today's date in the form April 18, 2009 and remove square brackets]). Originally published as "Agriculture et économie rustique – Charbon de bois," Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, vol. 1 (plates) (Paris, 1762).
  • Jones, Claude A. 1976. Making Charcoal at Jacobsburg. In Slate Belt Bicentennial Heritage, edited by Marjorie May, Maryann Repsher, Robert R. Saltern, Gordon E. Wilson, and Albert M. Toth, 32–33. Heritage Committee of the Slate Belt Bicentennial Commission.
  • Straka, Thomas J. 2014. Historic Charcoal Production in the US and Forest Depletion: Development of Production Parameters. Advances in Historical Studies: 104-114. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ahs.2014.32010
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