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==References==
==References==
*Berks History Center. 2019. ''Joanna Furnace: The Lost Years.'' Berks History Center.[https://berkshistorymysteries.wordpress.com/2019/09/12/joanna-furnace-the-lost-years/]
*Claussen, Edmund. 1968. ''The Underground Railroad.'' ''The Mercury,'' December 4, 1968.[https://www.newspapers.com/image/44887866/?terms=%22mt%2Bfrisby%22]
*Claussen, Edmund. 1968. ''The Underground Railroad.'' ''The Mercury,'' December 4, 1968.[https://www.newspapers.com/image/44887866/?terms=%22mt%2Bfrisby%22]


Revision as of 20:50, 21 January 2021

"Archaeologists have the ability to reconstruct settlement patterns using a combination of excavation and mapping. With so little existing above-ground evidence, archaeology is crucial for understanding where Black settlements were and how Black communities in the North were laid out"[1].

- Cheryl Janifer LaRoche, Free Black Communities and the Underground Railroad: The Geography of Resistance

"Beyond history, archaeology has a role in recovering African American Underground Railroad sources by identifying, locating, and mapping remnants of no longer existing historic black communities, their churches, and their churches’ associated cemeteries"[2].

- Cheryl Janifer LaRoche, Free Black Communities and the Underground Railroad: The Geography of Resistance

History

The African-American community at Six Penny Creek was established around 1835[3]. The area was affiliated with the Underground Railroad and the community was founded in the valley of Six Penny Creek by self-emancipated individuals (escaped slaves) from the south[4]. The land upon which communities comprised of self-emancipated individuals resided upon when they reached the north was generally less than ideal,[5] and sometimes located near iron forges and foundries[6]. When farming was not a viable option, members of these communities would support themselves through lumbering, timbering, charcoal production, foraging, and baking[7]. Many self-emancipated individuals found refuge in the woods as charcoal burners or woodcutters employed by places such as Hopewell Furnace in Pennsylvania, near Six Penny Creek[8]. In addition, various members of the Six Penny Creek Community served in the Union forces during the Civil War[9]. Isaac Cole, a member of the notable Cole family (see "Residents" - Cole) and prominent member of Six Penny Creek, served during the Civil War[10] and is buried in a cemetery within the community. Cemeteries within free communities that contain the graves of Civil War veterans serve as a reminder of the community's commitment to freedom and equality[11].

The Scarlet(t) Family

The Underground Railroad, in its early stages, was comprised of friends and acquaintances of Quaker or members of other religious groups who would shelter and assist self-emancipated individuals on his or her journey north[12]. The Underground Railroad grew in strength with the passage of the Federal Fugitive Slave Acts[1][13]. At the edge of a boarder state, Southeastern Pennsylvania was identified as a location early on where self-emancipated individuals could seek freedom[14]. The Six Penny Creek community grew near the home of Quaker Elizabeth Scarlett (1787-1839)[15]and her son Joseph (1821-1882)[16][17]. They owned Scarlett Mill[18]. Self-emancipated individuals from the south would come across the border into Pennsylvania and travel to Berks County, PA[19]. The Scarlett family housed self-emancipated individuals[20] in "Quaker Valley," Robeson Township, PA near Birdsboro,[21] Berks County, PA. Joseph Scarlett was active in aiding self-emancipated individuals beyond providing shelter at the family home. According to a newspaper article following his death, he was "an ardent friend of fugitive slaves and, and did not hesitate at personal danger in assisting them"[22]. He was once in Pennington (now Atglen), PA, when he noticed an individual chained to a bar rail in a public house and learned that the man was to be taken away by slave hunters[23]. Overnight, the bar rail was sawed through and the man was gone, along with the handcuffs[24]. A pair of damaged handcuffs appeared in the Scarlett home after the event and hung on the wall[25]. Joseph Scarlett was also involved in the Christiana Tragedy in 1851[2] in Lancaster, PA,[26] which can be seen as an important precursor to the Civil War[27]. During the incident, Joseph Scarlett refused to aid the "Gap Gang" arrest a group of self-emancipated individuals and prevented the death of a wounded man after the action of the event had concluded[28]. Joseph Scarlett was charged with treason and levying war against the United States government and spent ninety-seven days in Lancaster County Prison following the event[29]. He was one of three White men from the event to spend time in prison[30]. In 1870 Joseph Scarlett held a celebration for the anniversary of the emancipation proclamation on his property[31]. Joseph Scarlett was married[32] and was engaged in the green grocery business before his death[33].

Iron Production

The location of the Six Penny Creek community was close to Hopewell and Joanna furnaces[34] and to the forges in Birdsboro, PA[35]. The furnaces ran along an Underground Railroad route which went from Morgantown, PA to Hamburg, PA[36]. Self-emancipated slaves leaving the south had the opportunity to be housed at the Scarlett's house or within the Six Penny Creek community and work at nearby Hopewell Furnace to earn money as they established residence or to aid in their continued journey north[37]. Many of the records that remain at Hopewell Furnace show that some individuals worked at the furnace for very limited amounts of time, which may be indicative of escaped or freed slaves moving further north[38]. The names of these self-emancipated individuals were not recorded in the furnace's records to protect their identities[39]. In the south, more people self-emancipated from iron foundries than from any other industry, except for the agricultural industry[40]. As the community grew, the individuals within Six Penny Creek began to establish themselves as professionals. Some took work as colliers, farmers, stonemasons, laborers, teamsters, or woodchoppers who worked on Harvesting Wood for charcoal production. Many were involved in the iron production industry. For example, Peter Jones, listed in the 1850 and 1860 Censuses of Union Township in Berks County, PA, and John Hart, also listed in the 1850 Census of Union Township in Berks County, PA[41], were recorded in the nineteenth century Hopewell Furnace journals as cutting cord wood that was then used in the production of charcoal to fuel furnaces[42].

Furnaces

The owner of Joanna Furnace, Levi "Bull" Smith aided self-emancipated individuals by taking them to remote locations in the woods that were around the furnace and staying with them when there was nearby danger[43]. He married in to the Bull family, which had owned the furnace for two prior generations,[44] and lived in the furnace mansion at Joanna Furnace[45]. Levi Smith likely responsible for recruiting Henry Segner as a guide for the Underground Railroad[46]. As a hunter and part-time supervisor of charcoal burners in the area, Henry Segner was well suited for the role, as he had an extensive knowledge of the landscape around Hopewell[47]. It was said that Henry Segner would send a group of self-emancipated individuals guided by a charcoal burner off in one direction and then lead nearby slave hunters in another direction deep into the mountains so that they could not find their way out for several days[48], allowing the group of self-emancipated individuals time to move on. Levi Smith was not an anomaly. Many ironmasters were participants in the Underground Railroad and offered protection under the guise of work to self-emancipated individuals,[49] not only in Pennsylvania, but in other states as well, such as Ohio[50]. In the Hanging Rock Iron region in Ohio, furnace operator John Campbell used some profits to subsidize the Underground Railroad in the area by providing supplies such as horses, saddles, and wagons[51]. The routes formed from the various connections among iron furnaces were important to the pathway to freedom for self-emancipated individuals[52] as ironworks and transportation routes were utilized to move self-emancipated individuals from furnace to furnace[53]. These pathways for transporting self-emancipated individuals between iron forges and foundries were in use before the Underground Railroad[54].

Mt. Frisby African Methodist Episcopal Church

The Six Penny Creek community established Mt. Frisby African Methodist Episcopal (AME) Church in 1856[55]. The church was erected on land owned by the Cole family, a notable family in the community. More information on the Cole family can be found in the "residents" section of this page. The church became a station on the Underground Railroad[56]. It was also significant for being the location of the oldest African-American cemetery in Berks County, PA[57]. Several former laborers at the nearby Hopewell Furnace were buried in the church's cemetery[58].

Significance of AME Churches

The Underground Railroad was influenced by religious denominations, including AME, Quakers, Black Baptists, Methodists, and Presbyterians, among others[59]. Quakers, such as members of the Scarlett family, assisted self-emancipated individuals on the road to freedom. Within the Six Penny Creek community, the efforts of both Quakers and the establishment of the AME church within the community were important. Churches were often established on the edge of a settlement, rather than being centrally situated[60].

The AME denomination grew from the Free African Society, which was founded by Richard Allen, a former slave from Delaware[61], in 1787 when Absalom Jacobs and he broke from Philadelphia's St. George's Methodist Church and established a new congregation[62], Bethel AME in 1794[63]. Allen was successful in his legal lawsuits in 1807 and 1815 in Pennsylvania courts to secure the right of his congregation to exist as an institution independent of the general Methodist denomination[64]. Allen was a proponent of self-improvement, dignity, and racial equity, and these convictions of his were included in the establishment of other AME churches[65]. AME churches were utilized to harbor self-emancipated individuals along the Underground Railroad[66]. Following Allen's death in 1831, William Paul Quinn took up the mantle and established one of the earliest Black churches west of the Allegheny Mountains, an AME in Pittsburgh, where he served as pastor to the church that also served as a station on the Underground Railroad[67].

Residents

The ages listed in parentheses are taken directly from the census and may not be accurate.

Badley

In the 1860 Census of Union Township Catharine (65), Henry (14), and Lidya (4) Badley lived with Jane (23) and Mary Ann (9) Johnson. The Badleys were listed as being born in Pennsylvania[68].

Bendigs

In the 1850 Census of Union Township Sarah (28) and Suzanna (5) Bendigs, Eliza Hill (33), Anna Maria Wilson (23), and William Jacobs (50) lived in the house of manufacturer Charles Clarigan and his three family members, a gardener, and a young woman. The Bendigs were all listed as being born in Pennsylvania[69].

Brown

In the 1860 Census of Union Township John Brown (5 months) lived with Joseph (65), George (23), Caroline (14), Martha (9), Mary (35), and Jane (41) Tolbert, as well as with George (16), Henrietta (4), Henry (11), Mary E (7), and Joshua (4) Ford. John Brown was listed as being born in Pennsylvania[70].

Butler/Butter

In the 1850 Census of Union Township Charles (75) and Sarah (43) Butter were listed as being born in Pennsylvania. Charles Butter was a laborer. Neither could read nor write[71]. In the 1860 Census of Union Township Charles (60) and Sarah (45) Butler lived with Levi (30), Ellen (25), Elizabeth (4), and John (26) Dehart, as well as Ellen Ford (6). Charles Butler was a day laborer[72].

Cole

Isaac Cole (1825-1890)[73] was a woodcutter at Hopewell Furnace from 1858 to 1883[74]. In the 1860 Census of Union Township Isaac (32), Ann (25), Ann M (11), Albert (5), and Rachel (2) Cole lived together. Albert was in school and the family was listed as all being born in Pennsylvania[75]. Isaac Cole enlisted in the Union Army in 1864 at forty years of age where he became part of Company H, 22nd Regiment, United States Colored Troops[76] (the Cole family still live on the land owned by Isaac Cole and members of the Cole family have served in every war since the Civil War[77]). He was listed in the 1870 Census of Union Township, Berks County, PA as a laborer. Isaac (50) was residing with Annie (36), Alfrid (15), Rachael (12), Howard (10), Clara (9), Charles (5), and Aushun J (2) Cole. Isaac Close was listed as being born in Maryland, whereas the rest of his family is recorded as being born in Pennsylvania[78]. In the 1880 Census of Union Township, Isaac Cole was listed as a stone mason, as were two of his sons. He (51) lived with his wife Annie (42); his children Alfred (25), Howard (20), Clara (18), Charles (14), Arte (12) Emma (9), and Katy (6); and a collier named William Ford (41). All of Isaac Cole’s children were attending school except for Alfred. Everyone residing in the house was listed as being born in Pennsylvania[79]. Isaac Cole was involved in preparing for "colored woods camp meetings" in the area[80]. In 1885 a balloon launched from Girard College by Dr. W.H. Hammond of Washington D.D. and aeronaut L.H. King of Philadelphia landed on land owned by Isaac Cole[81]. He passed away on August 21, 1889[82]. In the 1890 Census of Union Township Ida (30), Annie (12), George (9), Ralph (6), and Theodore (1) Cole were living in the house of Ida Cole’s father Robert Miller (68). Ida Cole and her children were all listed as being born in Pennsylvania. Everyone in the family except for the two youngest Cole children could read and write[83]. Also in the 1890 Census of Union Township, Howard Cole (16) was a servant and farm laborer in the house of Jacob Smith, a farmer. He could read and write and was listed as being born in Pennsylvania[84].

Curtis

In the 1870 Census of Union Township Samuel Curtis (27), William Jacobs (65), John Spencer (19), and Elizabeth Thomas (24) lived in the house of iron master Charles Clarigan and four of his family members, as well as three other individuals. Samuel Curtis was a laborer and was listed as being born in Virginia and he could not read nor write[85].

Davis

In the 1850 Census of Union Township John Davis (36) resided by himself. He was a laborer who could not read nor write and was listed as being born in Pennsylvania[86].

Devis

In the 1860 Census of Union Township Ellen Devis (5) lived with Peter (55) and Anna (25) Jones. She was attending school[87].

Dickanson

In the 1860 Census of Union Township Ellen Dickanson (14), William Jacobs (55), and Latita Watson (15) lived in the house of Charles Clarigan and his five family members and four other individuals[88].

Duffy/Dutt

In the 1850 Census of Union Township John Dutt (30) was living on the farm of Henry Flannery among six members of the Flannery family and nine other individuals. He was listed as being born in Delaware[89]. In the 1860 Census of Union Township John Duffy (40) resided with the Lynch family and was recorded as being born in Pennsylvania[90].

England

In the 1880 Census of Union Township Lizzie (20) and her sister Mary (18) England lived together. Lizzie could not read nor write but her sister was in school. They were both listed as being born in Pennsylvania[91].

England

In the 1880 Census of Union Township Samuel (23), George (25), Mary (40), and John (5) England lived together in Samuel England’s house. Both Samuel and George were colliers and their mother was keeping house. The three adults could neither read nor write[92]. In the 1890 Census of Union Township Samuel England (50) was a woodchopper and was listed as being born in Pennsylvania[93].

Fiering

In the 1870 Census of Union Township John Fiering (45) was listed as residing with Ammon Allbright’s family and other laborers/residents at Allbright’s hotel. John Fierling was an ostler, meaning he looked after the horses at the hotel. He was listed as being born in Pennsylvania[94].

Ford

In the 1850 Census of Union Township Minty Ford (90) resided by herself. She was listed as being born in Pennsylvania and could not read nor write[95].

Ford

In the 1860 Census of Union Township Ellen Ford (6) was living with Charles (60) and Sarah (45) Butler, as well as Levi (30), Ellen (25), Elizabeth (4), and John (26) Dehart. She was in school[96].

Ford

In the 1850 Census of Union Township Edington (39), Jane (28), George (4), and Henriette (2) Ford were living in the home of John (65), Levi (19), John (18), and Mary (26) Hart. Also residing with them were John (60) and Dianna (46) Nixon and Washington Lee (60). Jane Ford could neither read nor write. The Fords were listed as being born in Pennsylvania. Edington Ford was a brake maker[97]. In the 1860 Census of Union Township George (16), Henrietta (4), Henry (11), Mary E (7), and Joshua (4) Ford lived with Joseph (65), George (23), Caroline (14), Martha (9), Mary (35), and Jane (41) Tolbert, as well as John Brown (5 months). The Fords were listed as being born in Pennsylvania[98].

Furguson

In the 1890 Census of Union Township James Furguson (8) was a servant in the household of Gustavus Frost, a farmer from Maine. James Furguson could read and write and was listed as being born in Pennsylvania[99].

Garret

In the 1850 Census of Union Township Matthias Garret (74) resided by himself. He was listed as being born in Pennsylvania and could not read nor write[100].

Hall

In the 1890 Census of Union Township Thomas (52), Harriet (25), and Joseph (25) Hall were living together with Thomas and Harriet Hall’s granddaughter Mary Robeson (12). Thomas and Joseph Hall were day laborers and everyone in the Hall family could read and write[101].

Hampden

In the 1880 Census of Union Township Rudolph (61), Hannah (57), Sallie (22), William (20), Frank (17), Lewis (14), Fred (6), Ellie (1), and John (30) Hampden lived together. Rudolph Hampden was a woodchopper who worked on Harvesting Wood. All of the Hampdens were listed as being born in Pennsylvania[102].

Hart/Dehart

In the 1850 Census of Union Township John (65) was living with Levi (19), John (18), and Mary (26) Hart. Also residing with the Hart family were John (60) and Dianna (46) Nixon; Edington (39), Jane (28), George (4), and Henriette (2) Ford; and Washington Lee (60). John Hart could neither read nor write. All of the individuals in the Hart family were listed as being born in Pennsylvania[103]. John Hart was recorded in the nineteenth century Hopewell Furnace journals as cutting cord wood[104]. In the 1860 Census of Union Township Levi (30), Ellen (25), Elizabeth (4), and John (26) Dehart lived with Charles (60) and Sarah (45) Butler, as well as Ellen Ford (6). Levi Dehart was a day laborer[105].

Herbert

In the 1870 Census of Union Township Robert (34), Lucy (22), and Robert (2) Herbert lived together in the house of Joseph Wright, a manufacturer. Four other individuals resided in the house as well. Robert and Lucy Herbert could neither read nor write and were both listed as being born in Virginia, and their son as being born in Pennsylvania[106].

Hill

Eliza Hill (33), Sarah (28) and Suzanna (5) Bendigs, Anna Maria Wilson (23), and William Jacobs (50) lived in the house of manufacturer In the 1850 Census of Union Township Charles Clarigan and his three family members, a gardener, and a young woman. Eliza Hill was listed as being born in Pennsylvania[107].

Jackson

In the 1850 Census of Union Township Thomas (45) and Elizabeth Jackson (12) lived together at the time of the 1850 Census. Thomas Jackson could neither read nor write. They were both listed as being born in Pennsylvania[108]. In the 1860 Census of Union Township Thomas (64), Emelia (25), and Harriet (1) Jackson and Ellen (22) and Elizabeth (1) Johnson lived together. The Jacksons were all recorded as being born in Pennsylvania[109]. In the 1880 Census of Union Township Thomas Jackson (86) was listed as one of the colliers in the area and was noted to have been born in Pennsylvania. He could not read nor write[110].

Jacobs

In the 1850 Census of Union Township William Jacobs (50), Eliza Hill (33), Sarah (28) and Suzanna (5) Bendigs, and Anna Maria Wilson (23) lived in the house of manufacturer Charles Clarigan and his three family members, a gardener, and a young woman. William Jacobs was listed as being born in Pennsylvania and could not read nor write[111]. In the 1860 Census of Union Township William Jacobs (55), Ellen Dickanson (14), and Latita Watson (15) lived in the house of Charles Clarigan and his five family members and four other individuals[112]. In the 1870 Census of Union Township William Jacobs (65), Samuel Curtis (27), John Spencer (19), and Elizabeth Thomas (24) lived in the house of iron master Charles Clarigan and four of his family members, as well as three other individuals. William Jacobs was a laborer, was listed as being born in Pennsylvania, and could neither read or write[113].

Johnson

In the 1860 Census of Union Township Jane (23) and Mary Ann (9) Johnson lived with Catharine (65), Henry (14), and Lidya (4) Badley. They were listed as being born in Pennsylvania[114].

Johnson

In the 1860 Census of Union Township William (7), Matilda (18), and Bodly (1 month) Johnson lived with Washington (68), George (21), Edward (5), and Israel (16) Lee, as well as Lee Tichia (25). Matilda Johnson was attending school and they were all listed as being born in Pennsylvania[115].

Johnson

In the 1860 Census of Union Township Ellen (22) and Elizabeth (1) Johnson lived with Thomas (64), Emelia (25), and Harriet (1) Jackson. They were both recorded as being born in Pennsylvania[116].

Jones

In the 1850 Census of Union Township Peter Jones (43) lived on the farm of Westley and his six person family. He was listed as a laborer born in Pennsylvania who could neither read nor write[117]. In the 1860 Census of Union Township Peter (55) and Anna (25) Jones lived with Ellen Devis (5). Peter Jones was a day laborer[118].

Lee

In the 1850 Census of Union Township Washington Lee (60) was living in the home of John (65), Levi (19), John (18), and Mary (26) Hart. Also residing in the house were John (60) and Dianna (46) Nixon and Edington (39), Jane (28), George (4), and Henriette (2) Ford. Washington Lee could neither read nor write and was listed as being born in Pennsylvania. Washington Lee was listed as a laborer[119].In the 1860 Census of Union Township Washington (68), George (21), Edward (5), and Israel (16) Lee lived with William (7), Matilda (18), and Bo dly (1 month) Johnson, as well as Lee Tichia (25). The Lees were listed as being born in Pennsylvania[120].

Miller

In the 1870 Census of Union Township Robert (37), Rosanna (24), Rebecca (3), Mary (1), and Jerimiah (37) Miller were living together. Robert and Jerimiah were laborers and were listed as being born in Virginia. The rest of the Millers were recorded as being born in Pennsylvania[121]. In the 1880 Census of Union Township Robert (41), Ida (10), and Jere (44) Miller lived together. Robert Miller was a farmer and his brother Jere Miller was one of the colliers in the area. Ida was attending school and Jere could not read or write. They were all listed as being born in Pennsylvania[122]. In the 1890 Census of Union Township Robert Miller (68) was living in the house he owned with his widowed daughter Ida Cole (30) and her four children. He was a farmer and was listed as being born in Virginia[123].

Molson/Hilton

In the 1860 Census of Union Township James (38), Harriet (24), Anneta (25), Margaret (15), David (10), Mary (8), James (4), and Emma (1month) Molson lived together and were all listed as being born in Pennsylvania. James Molson was a day laborer and Margaret, David, and Mary attended school[124]. In the 1870 Census of Union Township James (35), Anna (34), Harriet (10), William (14), Julia (9 months), and Amanda (14) Hilton lived together. James, a laborer, and Anna, keeping house, could not read nor write. Anna was listed as being born in Maryland and Amanda in Delaware, but the rest of the family was recorded as being from Pennsylvania[125].

Nixon

In the 1850 Census of Union Township John (60) and Dianna (46) Nixon resided in the home of John (65), Levi (19), John (18), and Mary (26) Hart. Also residing with them were Edington (39), Jane (28), George (4), and Henriette (2) Ford and Washington Lee (60). Dianna Nixon could neither read nor write. The Nixons were listed as being born in Pennsylvania and John Nixon was a forgeman[126]. In the 1860 Census of Union Township John (68) and Dianna (50) Nixon resided with Rosanna Watson (17), the daughter of John and Mary Watson from the 1850 Census[127]. In the 1880 Census of Union Township Dinah (Dianna) Nixon (74) was living alone following the death of her husband John. She was keeping house and was listed as being born in Pennsylvania[128].

Prince[129]

In the 1890 Census of Union Township Charles (34), Harriet (34), Ida (18), Ervin (18), Charles (13), Frank (7), Lyly (5), Wesley (2), and Ella (0) lived together. The Prince family was interesting for the time period as the marriage was an interracial one. Charles and Harriet were listed as being married for four years in the 1900 census[130]., and for six years in the 1910 census[131]. Charles Prince was a day laborer and the entire family was recorded as being born in Pennsylvania[132], although in the 1910 census Charles Prince is recorded as being born in Ohio[133]. Everyone in the house who was thirteen or older could read and write, except for Ida[134].

Robeson

In the 1890 Census of Union Township Mary Robeson (12) was living with her grandparents and her uncle. She could read and write and was listed as being born in Pennsylvania[135].

Seymore

In the 1890 Census of Union Township Howard Seymore (30) lived in the Flanery household where he was a servant. He could read and write and was listed as being born in Pennsylvania[136].

Spencer

In the 1870 Census of Union Township John Spencer (19), William Jacobs (65), Samuel Curtis (27), and Elizabeth Thomas (24) lived in the house of iron master Charles Clarigan and four of his family members, as well as three other individuals. John Spencer was a laborer and was listed as being born in Pennsylvania[137].

Tichia

In the 1860 Census of Union Township Lee Tichia (25) lived with Washington (68), George (21), Edward (5), and Israel (16) Lee, as well as William (7), Matilda (18), and Bodly (1 month) Johnson. Lee Tichia was listed as being born in Pennsylvania[138].

Thomas

In the 1870 Census of Union Township Elizabeth Thomas (24), William Jacobs (65), Samuel Curtis (27), and John Spencer (19), lived in the house of iron master Charles Clarigan and four of his family members, as well as three other individuals. Elizabeth Thomas was a domestic servant and was listed as being born in Pennsylvania[139].

Tolbert

In the 1860 Census of Union Township Joseph (65), George (23), Caroline (14), Martha (9), Mary (35), and Jane (41) Tolbert lived together with George (16), Henrietta (4), Henry (11), Mary E (7), and Joshua (4) Ford, as well as John Brown (5 months). The Tolberts were listed as being born in Pennsylvania[140].

Watson

In the 1850 Census of Union Township John (35) lived with Mary (25), Roseanna (8), Catharine (4), and John (1) Watson. John was listed as a laborer and the entire family was noted as being born in Pennsylvania[141]. In the 1860 Census of Union Township Rosanna Watson (17) lived with John (68) and Dianna (50) Nixon. Rosanna Watson was attending school[142].

Watson

In the 1860 Census of Union Township John (45), Louisa (40), Julia (12), Maria (10), Emma (4), and Caroline (2) lived together. Julia was attending school and they were all listed as being born in Pennsylvania[143].

Watson

In the 1860 Census of Union Township Latita Watson (15), William Jacobs (55), and Ellen Dickanson (14) lived in the house of Charles Clarigan and his five family members and four other individuals[144].

Wilson

In the 1850 Census of Union Township Anna Maria Wilson (23), Eliza Hill (33), Sarah (28) and Suzanna (5) Bendigs, and William Jacobs (50) lived in the house of manufacturer Charles Clarigan and his three family members, a gardener, and a young woman. Wilson was listed as being born in Pennsylvania and attended school[145].

Notes

  1. ↑ LaRoche 2017, 101
  2. ↑ LaRoche 2017, 14
  3. ↑ National Park Service 2015
  4. ↑ National Park Service 2015
  5. ↑ LaRoche 2017, 99
  6. ↑ LaRoche 2017, 90
  7. ↑ LaRoche 2017, 100-101
  8. ↑ LaRoche 2017, 96
  9. ↑ Homan 1958
  10. ↑ Hebblethwaite 2010
  11. ↑ LaRoche
  12. ↑ Homan 1958
  13. ↑ LaRoche 2017, 118
  14. ↑ Homan 1958
  15. ↑ Find a Grave
  16. ↑ Find a Grave
  17. ↑ LaRoche 2017, 96
  18. ↑ LaRoche 2017, 96
  19. ↑ LaRoche 2017, 96
  20. ↑ National Park Service 2015
  21. ↑ Claussen 1968
  22. ↑ Reading Times, 25 July 1882
  23. ↑ Homan 1958
  24. ↑ Homan 1958
  25. ↑ Homan 1958
  26. ↑ The Times, 30 January 1882
  27. ↑ The Daily Evening Express, 21 August 1875
  28. ↑ Homan 1958
  29. ↑ Homan 1958
  30. ↑ The Saturday Express, 15 November 1851
  31. ↑ The Lancaster Examiner, 28 September 1870
  32. ↑ Find a Grave
  33. ↑ The Philadelphia Inquirer, 19 July 1882
  34. ↑ National Park Service 2015
  35. ↑ LaRoche 2017, 96
  36. ↑ LaRoche 2017, 96
  37. ↑ DCNR 2019
  38. ↑ Walker 1966, 307
  39. ↑ LaRoche 2017, 96
  40. ↑ LaRoche 2017, 95
  41. ↑ United States Census, 1850
  42. ↑ National Park Service 2015
  43. ↑ LaRoche 2017, 96
  44. ↑ Berks History Center 2019
  45. ↑ Homan 1958
  46. ↑ Homan 1958
  47. ↑ Homan 1958
  48. ↑ Homan 1958
  49. ↑ LaRoche 2017, 97
  50. ↑ LaRoche 2017, 95
  51. ↑ LaRoche 2017, 74
  52. ↑ LaRoche 2017, 71
  53. ↑ LaRoche 2017, 74
  54. ↑ LaRoche 2017, 95
  55. ↑ National Park Service 2015
  56. ↑ National Park Service 2015
  57. ↑ National Park Service 2015
  58. ↑ National Park Service 2015
  59. ↑ LaRoche 2017, 12
  60. ↑ LaRoche 2017, 101
  61. ↑ Dickerson
  62. ↑ LaRoche 2017, 133
  63. ↑ Dickerson
  64. ↑ Dickerson
  65. ↑ LaRoche 2017, 133
  66. ↑ LaRoche 2017, 134
  67. ↑ LaRoche 2017, 134-135
  68. ↑ United States Census, 1860
  69. ↑ United States Census, 1850
  70. ↑ United States Census, 1860
  71. ↑ United States Census, 1850
  72. ↑ United States Census, 1860
  73. ↑ Find a Grave
  74. ↑ Crimmins 2018
  75. ↑ United States Census, 1860
  76. ↑ Hebblethwaite 2010
  77. ↑ Homan 1958
  78. ↑ United States Census, 1870
  79. ↑ United States Census, 1880
  80. ↑ Reading Times 3 September 1882, 4
  81. ↑ Reading Times 14 March 1885, 1
  82. ↑ Reading Times 22 August 1889, 3
  83. ↑ United States Census, 1900
  84. ↑ United States Census, 1900
  85. ↑ United States Census, 1870
  86. ↑ United States Census, 1850
  87. ↑ United States Census, 1860
  88. ↑ United States Census, 1860
  89. ↑ United States Census, 1850
  90. ↑ United States Census, 1860
  91. ↑ United States Census, 1880
  92. ↑ United States Census, 1880
  93. ↑ United States Census, 1900
  94. ↑ United States Census, 1870
  95. ↑ United States Census, 1850
  96. ↑ United States Census, 1860
  97. ↑ United States Census, 1850
  98. ↑ United States Census, 1860
  99. ↑ United States Census, 1900
  100. ↑ United States Census, 1850
  101. ↑ United States Census, 1900
  102. ↑ United States Census, 1880
  103. ↑ United States Census, 1850
  104. ↑ National Park Service 2015
  105. ↑ United States Census, 1860
  106. ↑ United States Census, 1870
  107. ↑ United States Census, 1850
  108. ↑ United States Census, 1850
  109. ↑ United States Census, 1860
  110. ↑ United States Census, 1880
  111. ↑ United States Census, 1850
  112. ↑ United States Census, 1860
  113. ↑ United States Census, 1870
  114. ↑ United States Census, 1860
  115. ↑ United States Census, 1860
  116. ↑ United States Census, 1860
  117. ↑ United States Census, 1850
  118. ↑ United States Census, 1860
  119. ↑ United States Census, 1850
  120. ↑ United States Census, 1860
  121. ↑ United States Census, 1870
  122. ↑ United States Census, 1880
  123. ↑ United States Census, 1900
  124. ↑ United States Census, 1860
  125. ↑ United States Census, 1870
  126. ↑ United States Census, 1850
  127. ↑ United States Census, 1860
  128. ↑ United States Census, 1880
  129. ↑ United States Census, 1910
  130. ↑ United States Census, 1900
  131. ↑ United States Census, 1910
  132. ↑ United States Census, 1900
  133. ↑ United States Census, 1910
  134. ↑ United States Census, 1900
  135. ↑ United States Census, 1900
  136. ↑ United States Census, 1900
  137. ↑ United States Census, 1870
  138. ↑ United States Census, 1860
  139. ↑ United States Census, 1870
  140. ↑ United States Census, 1860
  141. ↑ United States Census, 1850
  142. ↑ United States Census, 1860
  143. ↑ United States Census, 1860
  144. ↑ United States Census, 1860
  145. ↑ United States Census, 1850

References

  • Berks History Center. 2019. Joanna Furnace: The Lost Years. Berks History Center.[3]
  • Claussen, Edmund. 1968. The Underground Railroad. The Mercury, December 4, 1968.[4]
  • Crimmins, Peter. 2018. Forging a Sense of Hopewell Furnace’s History Through its Citizens and Visitors. WHYY.[5]
  • The Daily Evening Express. 1875. A Scrap of History, August 21, 1875.[6]
  • DCNR. 2019. Stories of Black History in Pennsylvania State Parks and Forests. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, Department of Conservation and Natural Resources.[7]
  • Dickerson, Dennis C. The Official Website African Methodist Episcopal Church: Our History. AME Church.[8]
  • Find a Grave, database and images (https://www.findagrave.com : accessed 22 November 2020), memorial page for Pvt Isaac Cole (1825–1890), Find a Grave Memorial no. 101121496, citing Mount Frisby Church Graveyard, Berks County, Pennsylvania, USA ; Maintained by N.D. Scheidt (contributor 47099775).[9]
  • Find a Grave, database and images (https://www.findagrave.com : accessed 20 January 2021), memorial page for Elizabeth Pownall Scarlet (25 Mar 1787–26 Jun 1839), Find a Grave Memorial no. 167131942, citing Robeson Monthly Meeting Cemetery, Berks County, Pennsylvania, USA ; Maintained by N.D. Scheidt (contributor 47099775).[10]
  • Find a Grave, database and images (https://www.findagrave.com : accessed 20 January 2021), memorial page for Joseph P. Scarlett (15 Mar 1821–8 Jul 1882), Find a Grave Memorial no. 87337897, citing West Laurel Hill Cemetery, Bala Cynwyd, Montgomery County, Pennsylvania, USA ; Maintained by Mary Harrell-Sesniak (contributor 46488639).[11]
  • Hebblethwaite, Frank. 2010. “Isaac Cole, 32nd Regiment U.S.C.T.”[12]
  • Homan, Wayne E. 1958. The Underground Railroad. Historical Review of Berks County, Berks History Center.[13]
  • The Lancaster Examiner. 1870. Celebration, September 28, 1870.[14]
  • LaRoche, Cheryl Janifer. 2017. Free Black Communities and the Underground Railroad: The Geography of Resistance. Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois Press.
  • National Park Service, Hopewell Furnace. 2015. African-Americans at Hopewell Furnace. National Park Service: U.S. Department of the Interior.[15]
  • The Philadelphia Inquirer. 1882. The Slaves' Friend, July 19, 1882.[16]
  • Reading Times. 1882. An Exciting Episode Recalled by Death, July 25, 1882.[17]
  • Reading Times. 1883. Colored Woods Meeting Near Geigertown, September 3, 1883.[18]
  • Reading Times. 1885. A Balloon Landing Along the Hay Creek, March 14, 1885.[19]
  • Reading Times. 1889. Birdsboro Local News, August 22, 1889.[20]
  • The Saturday Express, 1851. Visit to the Christiana Prisoners, November 15, 1851.[21]
  • The Times - Philadelphia. 1882. The Riot at Christiana, January 30, 1882.[22]
  • United States Census, 1850, database with images, FamilySearch [23] : 9 April 2016, Pennsylvania > Berks > Union > image 22 of 40; citing NARA microfilm publication M432 (Washington, D.C.: National Archives and Records Administration, n.d.).
  • United States Census, 1860, database with images, FamilySearch [24] : 24 March 2017, Pennsylvania > Berks > Union Township > image 9 of 53; from "1860 U.S. Federal Census - Population," database, Fold3.com (http://www.fold3.com : n.d.); citing NARA microfilm publication M653 (Washington, D.C.: National Archives and Records Administration, n.d.).
  • United States Census, 1870, database with images, FamilySearch [25]1 : 15 June 2019, Pennsylvania > Berks > Union > image 52 of 56; citing NARA microfilm publication M593 (Washington, D.C.: National Archives and Records Administration, n.d.).
  • United States Census, 1880, database with images, FamilySearch [26] : 24 December 2015, Pennsylvania > Berks > Union > ED 68 > image 24 of 31; citing NARA microfilm publication T9, (National Archives and Records Administration, Washington, D.C., n.d.).
  • United States Census, 1900, database with images, FamilySearch [27] : 5 August 2014, Pennsylvania > Berks > ED 115 Union Township > image 4 of 24; citing NARA microfilm publication T623 (Washington, D.C.: National Archives and Records Administration, n.d.).
  • United States Census, 1910, database with images, FamilySearch [28] : 24 June 2017, Pennsylvania > Berks > Union > ED 123 > image 4 of 26; citing NARA microfilm publication T624 (Washington, D.C.: National Archives and Records Administration, n.d.).
  • Walker, Joseph E. 1966. Hopewell Village: A Social and Economic History of an Iron-Making Community. Oxford University Press.
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